Megan's Thoughts

Renaissance Weddings

2010-05-04T18:47:00.000-07:00

In the Renaissance era, weddings were a huge affair. Much preparation were put into these weddings and they were very detailed and took much planning. There were laws related to marriage, marriage customs, music, clothing attire, food; and many more aspects to a Renaissance wedding.

During the Renaissance marriage laws began to emerge. In 1076, the Council of Westminster decreed that no man should give his daughter or any female relative to anyone with the blessing of a priest. in the future councils would also decree that marriage shouldn't be secret but rather held in the open. Also in the sixteenth century, the Council of Trent decreed that a priest was mandatory to preform the betrothal ceremony. Another law was that separation of marriage was tolerated, however there was no such thing as a legal divorce.

One of the marriage customs during the Renaissance era was that on an average the grooms were about 14 years older than their brides. It was very rare that a noble women wasn't married before they were in their mid-twenties. More than seventy five percent were married before they reached the age of 19.

Another one of the marriage customs during the Renaissance is that the weddings were often held at the bride's home or if the couples belonged to the nobility they would have their weddings in medieval castles. However during the later Middle Ages, the weddings most likely took place in a chapel.

A few of the other Renaissance marriage traditions that are still followed to this day are: throwing rice, tiered cakes, flowers, garters, and gave the reasoning behind the saying, "Something old, something blue". The tradition of throwing rice dates back to the Renaissance era; it symbolizes the luck for the couple and fertility. The idea of having a tiered cake also dates back to the Renaissance era. The guests would brings mini cakes and stack them on top of each other, and if the bride and groom could kiss over the top of them without knocking them down then they would be blessed with good luck. many women of this era wore a wreath of flowers on their heads; this also symbolized good luck and fertility. The throwing of the garter also dates back to the Renaissance era. The famous saying something old, something blue", also dated back to the Renaissance era. At that time the most popular color for a wedding dress was blue because it symbolized purity, and if a bride didn't have a blue dress then she would carry something blue. Even in today's weddings, people still follow this Renaissance era tradition.

Overall the Renaissance marriage ceremonies were dependent upon the social class of the bride and groom. Marriages were often arranged, mainly based on inheritance and property rights and not for love. Contracts were drawn up describing the rights of the bride and groom.

In the Renaissance weddings music were another aspect. Music was played throughout many different part of the wedding. The instruments of this era were broken into five major categories: winds, plucked strings, bowed strings, keyboard, and percussion. A few of the instruments in the winds category are: flutes, brass, cornet, uncapped double reeds, and capped double reeds. and few of the plucked strings were the gut-strung and metal or wire strung. A few of the keyboards of this era were the organ, clavichord, and harpsichord. The percussion of this era consisted of drums and metallophoes.

The clothing attire for weddings during the Renaissance era were usually elegant dresses that were form fitting with some bead work. They often had a very graceful and beautiful tone to them. They were sometimes long and often gold added to them. They also often had long sleeves with some type of ruffles on them.

A major past of a Renaissance wedding was the food. During the Renaissance era food was a major deal to peoples lives, so of course it was a even bigger deal for weddings during this time period. Huge feasts would be held to celebrate a wedding. This took place whether the bride and groom were peasants of came from a family of nobility. A few of the popular food of the time were: chickens, game hens, meat pies, cheeses, herbed vegetables, quail, goose, roasted boar, fish, roasted peacock, mutton, cheeses, nuts, fresh fruit, oysters, cabbage, tarts, custards, rice, and wine.

During the wedding, the guests would drink water, ale, beer, mead, milk, and wine. Fruit juices were created at this time, but the majority of it was fermented to create wine. In this era, wine was thought to nourish the body, restore health, help digestion, help clarify ideas, open the arteries and help procreation.

During weddings at this time, the table etiquette was that the squired learned and did every aspect from the carving of whatever type of meat they had to the correct placement and order of dished on the table.

During the Renaissance era, weddings were a huge affair. They often had much preparation related tohem and had many different parts to them. Overall they were magnificent events and some of the traditions still are used today. The Renaissance was an amazing era, and one way this is shown is through their weddings.

Renaissance Food

2010-02-16T20:59:00.000-08:00

Renaissance food was very reflective of the era itself. The dishes that were prepared during this era were prepared to please both the eye and stomach. Some of the many food that the people of the renaissance cooked were: soups, roasts, salads, cheese, pastas, pastries, and many side dishes. This shows that during the renaissance era the people cared about food very much.

The history behind the early renaissance food is largely related to the leftovers of the Middle Ages. However, there was a transition when the Americas were discovered in 1492 by Christopher Columbus. Soon new foods were migrated into the Renaissance kitchens. Some of the crops that were new to the Renaissance people were the potato and corn. These foods revolutionized Renaissance farming.

During the Renaissance era, feast were popular for special occasions; such as weddings, or around the holidays. Some of the foods that were often part of these feast were soups, roasts, salads, cheese, pastas, pastries, and side dishes. These feasts often included several courses and many desserts.

The soups were often very rich and were often several were served at the same time. The soups were cooked to please both the stomach and the eye. To do so they often made the soups with many colors, sweetened it with sugar, and sprinkles it with pomegranate seeds and aromatic herbs. They soups of this time were thought of to be “sweets”. One of the descriptions given by Taillevent, head cook of Charles VII, described a soup that mainly consisted of bread, sugar, white wine, yolk of egg, and rosewater. This shows that the soups of this time period were often very sweet.

An important part of the Renaissance meal were the roasts. The most common type of roast was the sirloin of beef. The way in which they cooked the roast were to first boil the meats and then the roasts was cooked with orange juices and rosewater, and covered with sugar and many spices. The roast was then cooked. The roast of this time were very complex in the sense that there was many ingredients that were put into the recipe to ensure a good tasting roast.

The people of this time period accepted the custom of serving the salads after the roast. However, the salads were never brought to the table in its natural state. The salads were similar to the salads of today in the sense that it consisted of raw herbs and had some sort of dressing. However, the salads of this time also included several other mixtures, such as: cooked vegetables, and the crests, livers, or brains of poultry. Near the salads in the order of the courses in a dinner were often eggs prepared in various ways.

Another aspect of a Renaissance feast and diet would include cheese. These cheese came from many places in France. They also ate cheese from Europe.

The Renaissance in a sense is Italian in the first place. Therefore it would not be Renaissance food without a variety of pastas. Some of these pastas included: semolina, vermicelli, and macaroni. They were called Italian food because they originated from Italy in France. The pastas were first introduced the Renaissance after the expedition of Charles VIII into Italy, and the conquest of Naples.

Pastries were another aspect of the Renaissance food. They were often a sweet and savory pastry. These included different sorts of tarts and meat pies. Ancient pastries received the name of tarte, from the Latin tortsa, a large hunch of bread. This name, however, was afterwards exclusively used for hot pies.

Side-dishes were also part of the food in the Renaissance period. They mainly consisted of: a variety of pastas, covered pastry, Bourconnaise pastry, double-faced pastry, pear pastry, and apple pastry, and white pastry with elder flowers, rice, roses or chestnuts.

During this era many seasonings were used to season the food,. Some of these seasonings include: rejoice, herbs, and flowers. When the rejoice was mixed with vinegar it formed the basis for many of the sauces. The spices were often added to add flavor to the dishes.

Overall to the people of the Renaissance cared about food greatly and created great feast. They created works of art that were carefully prepared to please both the eyes and the stomach.

10 Final Exam Questions

2009-12-07T18:17:00.000-08:00

1) What people were from western Asia, who moved into central Europe?
a. Vikings
*b. Magyars
c. Muslims
d. Franks
2) The invasions of which of the following did not led to the emergence of a new type of political order?
a. Muslims
b. Magyars
c. Vikings
*d. Mongols
3) In what century did a separation between the western and eastern parts of the Roman Empire begin to develop?
*a. fourth
b. fifth
c. sixth
d. seventh
4)The most serious challenge to the Eastern Roman Empire came from the rise of _Islam_.
5) The _Byzantine_ Empire was both a Greek and a Christian state.
6) The _emperor_ occupied a crucial position in the Byzantine state.
7) The _Macedonian_ dynasty of the 10th and 11th centuries had restored much of the power of the Byzantine Empire.
8) The _Crusades_ were based upon the idea of a holy war against the infidel.
9) In _843_, the Carolingian Empire had been divided into three major sections.
10) In the tenth century, the powerful dukes of the _Saxons_ became kings of the lands of the eastern Frankish kingdom.

Renaissance Art

2009-12-06T11:05:00.000-08:00

The time period in which the Renaissance art was created was during the Renaissance period. The Renaissance art is distinctive in many ways. The Renaissance was the revival of the learning and cultural awareness that occurred in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They occurred mainly in Italy, but also took place in Germany and other European countries. This time period was focused on the revival of the ancient Greek and Roman art, which included a focus on science, philosophy, human beings, and their environment. (Book Internet)

The main reason for the Renaissance began in Italy is because of its location in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea. Also, Italy was home to many wealthy families, willing to finance education. The Italian Renaissance was divided into three major parts: the Early, High, and late Renaissance.

The Renaissance also marks the part of European history where the Middle Ages were coming to a close and the Modern World was beginning. The main idea of the revival of the roman and Greek was through the belief that the study of the intellectual and artistic treasures of the Greco-Roman antiquity can be reached by artistic greatness, wisdom and enlightenment. This was inspired by Humanism.

During the Renaissance period many changes occurred in the area of art. One change that occurred was the spiritual content of painting. Some of the ideas from Roman history and mythology were borrowed. Some other changes were: devotional art of Christian orientation became classically humanized and classical artistic principles, including harmonious proportion, realistic expression, and rational postures were emulated. These are a few of the many ways in which Renaissance art is distinctive.

Compared to the art of the Middle Ages, Renaissance art is more life-like. This is one way inwhich Renassiance art is distinctive. "Renaissance artists studied perspective, or the differences in the way things look when they are close to something or far away. The artists painted in a way that showed these differences. As a result, their paintings seem to have depth."

One of the artist that was the first to paint with this new style was an artist from Florence named Giotto. Even though he lived more than a century before the beginning of the Renaissance, his his paintings show real emotion. The art produced during the Renaissance would build upon Giotto’s style. (Book Internet)

More ways inwhich Renaissance art was distinctive was that there was mannerism, which was characterized by odd poses and distortions. In a sense, the individual became the subject of art. The church mainly used art to portray passion, emotion, and drama in order to bring people back to the faith.

The Remaining Crusades

2009-11-20T21:37:00.000-08:00

Five minor crusades followed the fourth crusade. They were the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth crusades. The Minor Crusades timeline were: fifth crusade 1217 - 1221, sixth crusade 1228 - 1229, seventh crusade 1248 - 1254, the eighth crusade 1270, and the ninth crusade 1271 - 1272. The Minor Crusades were led by many different rulers. The fifth crusade was led by King Andrew II of Hungary, Duke Leopold VI of Austria, and John of Brienne. The sixth crusade was led by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II. The seventh and eighth crusades were led by King Louis IX of France. The ninth was lead by Prince Edward; who was later Edward I of England.

"The last four expeditions, the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth and Ninth crusades were undertaken by the Christians of Europe against the infidels of the East, may be conveniently grouped as the Minor Crusades. The Minor Crusades were marked by a less fervid and holy enthusiasm than that which characterized the first movements, and exhibit among those taking part in them the greatest variety of objects and ambitions."

The fifth crusade started when Pope Honorius III achieved in getting more Europeans to agree to try again to conquer Jerusalem from the Ayyubids. For this crusade the Pope decided that he would be in charge and not the European king. Following the fourth crusade plan, the crusade went south to Egypt. An alliance was made with the Seljuk sultan, Kay Kaus I, in 1218. They then attacked the port of Damietta in Egypt. Following this there was a siege, in which many people on both side died. In 1219, the crusaders finally gained Damietta, however, soon after they began to fight over power of this city. Shortly after, in 1221, the crusaders went after Cairo, to try to take over more of Egypt. However, the Ayyubids flooded the roads by using the Nile river. In order for the crusaders to get out they had to make peace with the Ayyubids. They came to an agreement in which the crusaders had to give back Damietta. After the peace treaty was made the crusaders went home with little progress to show.

Soon after the failure of the Fifth crusaded, Frederick II decided to try his own crusade. Friedrich marched on Acre, in Syria. "Then Friedrich got an offer from al-Kamil, the Ayyubid sultan of Egypt. Al-Kamil wanted to put his brother in power in Syria. He would hand over Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem to Friedrich in exchange for help from Friedrich's army. Friedrich agreed, and crowned himself King of Jerusalem in 1229 AD." However, a few months later Frederick II had to go home to Germany as a cause of problems there. He left Jerusalem without an army to protect it. Then the Mamluks, who were rising into power in West Asia, took Jerusalem.

The seventh crusade was started by King Louis IX of France. After the Mamluks took Jerusalem when Frederick II left it without an army to protect it, Louis announced his Crusade. He raised money from church tithes, then sailed to Cyprus; when he was 34 years old. Here he attacked and took the port of Damietta in Egypt; which was greatly involved in the fifth crusade. Using Damietta as a base, Louis then attacked Cairo. But the Mamluks arrived and defeated and captured him. France had to give back Damietta and pay a lot of gold to get him back. Louis and his army left for Acre in Syria. Louis was now forty years old and had ran out of money. Also, his mother, Blanche of Castile, died. She had been ruling France while Louis was away leading the Crusades, and with her dead Louis had to go home and take charge.

"After Louis IX of France had gotten France organized, following the death of his mother, Blanche, he wanted to try another Crusade. The Seventh Crusade, which Louis led, had ended in failure in 1254 AD, so in 1270, when he was 56 years old, Louis tried again. But he started by going to Tunis, to get a base in North Africa. Unfortunately the plague struck his camp, and Louis himself died of it. That was the end of the eighth crusade"

The ninth crusade is often combined with the eighth crusades. it is often considered to be the last Holy Crusade to get Jerusalem.

Overall the Minor Crusades were not a big success and mainly a waste of human lives.

The Fourth Crusade

2009-11-12T12:47:00.000-08:00

The Fourth Crusade was one of the most important crusades in history. It is often understood to be a much simpler crusade than truly is. It is also one of the most complex crusades.

When the Third Crusade failed to regain Jerusalem from the Ayyubids, Pope Innocent immediately started to encourage a new crusade. It took a long time until the crusade took place for a variety of reason. In 1193 AD, Saladin had died. As a cause of this the crusaders thought that Saladin's successors were weaker and would be easier to beat.

For this crusade the crusaders would try something different. Rather than coming down from the north, they would sail the opposite direction to Egypt. Then they would come up from Egypt to Jerusalem.

The Crusaders did not have enough ships to take everyone to Egypt. So they went to Venice, the great sea power. When the Crusaders went to Venice, in June 1202, they did not have enough money for the ships. So the Venetians made a deal with the Crusaders. The Venetians agreed to finish the needed ship for the crusade if the Crusaders would first seize Zara on the eastern coast of the Adriatic. Zara, however, was a Christian city. Therefore the Pope protested against this. Despite this the crusaders besieged and captured the city.

"The interest of the Venetians and the intention of Dandolo, of course, was not merely to take Zara, but to secure it under their own hegemony." (Book Internet)

After the seize of Zara the Venetians persuaded the Crusaders to turn their arms against Constantinople. For the Venetians, Constantinople would greatly increase trade and influence in the East; and for the crusading nobles it gave opportunities for the growth of wealth and power.

The Crusaders took Constantinople. They burned a great part of it and slaughtered the inhabitants. They also destroyed monuments, statues, paintings, and manuscripts; which took thousands of years of accumulate.

Many islands which had belonged to the Empire now belonged the Venetians. At the end of the Fourth Crusade the Crusaders never fought the Ayyubids at all, and never went to Jerusalem. At the end, they took the piles of money and jewels and gold that they had captured in the sack of Constantinople and they went home. Pope Innocent agreed to let them back into the Church.

The chief crusaders formed part of the remaining territory into the Latin Empire of Constantinople. It was organized in fiefs. This new Empire lasted for less than sixty year. At the end of this period the Greeks returned to power. "The fall of Constantinople to the Venetians and the soldiers of the fourth crusade in April 1204 was its climax." (Book Internet)

The Third Crusade

2009-11-07T14:50:00.000-08:00

Following the second crusade came the third crusade. Overall the crusades were a cause of the Christians and the Muslims fighters over the Holy Land. This fight over Jerusalem was such a big deal, because of the importance of religion in the medieval times. Religion played an important role in human everyday life. Religion determined your social class and how you lived your life. Thus a religious place, such as Jerusalem, was important during the medieval times.

Another cause religion had on the crusades is that it was the very reason why many people fought in the crusades. They believed that they fought in the crusades under the name of God; and that by fighting in the crusade they guarantee themselves a place in heaven and would right their wrongs. They believed that it was God's will that they go and fight for Jerusalem.

The third crusade followed the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin and the defeat of Guy of Lusignan, Reginald of Châtillon, and Raymond of Tripoli at Hattin. The main leaders of the third crusade were: Richard I of England, Philip II of France, and Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I.

The third crusade started when Frederick I headed out. He, however, was hindered by the Byzantine emperor, Isaac II. Isaac II had formed an alliance with Saladin. Frederick continued on to the Bosporus, sacked Adrianople and compelled the Greeks to furnish transportation to Asia Minor. Unfortunately, this was the end of Frederick's life. He he died in 1190 in Cilicia from drowning, and only part of his forces went on to the Holy Land. Only 1,000 of the 30,000 who had originally left Germany reached their destination of Acre.

The remaining two leaders, Richard I and Philip II, were uneasy allies. They reached Acre in 1191, with help from the remnants of Frederick's army. They besieged the city, but Saladin's army attempted to break the siege, but were turned away. The city was taken on July 12. Philip, was frustrated with Richard, and left the Holy Land in August.

"On August 22, Richard executed the 3000 Muslim prisoners he still had in his custody at Acre, when he felt Saladin was not honouring the terms of Acre's surrender."

After this event, Richard wanted to take the port of Jaffa. This he would need to launch an attack on Jerusalem. While on this march, Saladin attacked him, but Richard won victoriously. By January of 1192, Richard was prepared to march to Jerusalem. (Book Internet) However, Saladin reinforced his army and city. As a cause of this when Richard came within sight of Jerusalem twice, he retreated each time in the face of Saladin's larger army. In July, Saladin tried to retake Jaffe. He, however, failed on July 31.

"King Richard and Saladin finally concluded a truce by the terms of which Christians were permitted to visit Jerusalem without paying tribute, that they should have free access to the holy places, and remain in undisturbed possession of the coast from Jaffa to Tyre. " As a cause of this the third crusade came to an end.

"The third crusade was the last effort of the united Christendom." (Book Internet)

The Second Crusade

2009-10-31T14:32:00.000-07:00

The success of the Christians in the First Crusade had been mainly a cause of the disunion among their enemies. But the Moslems learned in time the value of united action, and in 1144 A.D. succeeded in capturing Edessa, one of the principal Christian outposts in the East. The fall of the city of Edessa, followed by the loss of the entire county of Edessa, aroused western Europe to the danger which threatened the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and led to another crusading enterprise.

"The apostle of the Second Crusade was the great abbot of Clairvaux, St. Bernard. Scenes of the wildest enthusiasm marked his preaching. The scenes that marked the opening of the First Crusade were now repeated in all the countries of the West. St. Bernard, an eloquent monk, was the second Peter the Hermit, who went everywhere, arousing the warriors of the Cross to the defence of the birthplace of their religion. When the churches were not large enough to hold the crowds which flocked to hear him, he spoke from platforms erected in the fields."

The Second Crusade was the second major crusade launched from Europe, called in 1145. Edessa was the first of the Crusader states to have been founded during the First Crusade, and was the first to fall. The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III, and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, with help from a number of other important European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe and were somewhat hindered by Byzantine emperor Manuel I Comnenus; after crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in an ill-advised attack on Damascus. The crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a great victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately lead to the fall of Jerusalem and the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century.

"Unlike the spectacular success of the First Crusade, the Second Crusade, launched in 1145, is generally regarded as a disaster for the Christian West. Even those who took part in the Crusade saw it as a failure."

In the East the situation was much darker for the Christians. In the Holy Land, the Second Crusade had disastrous long-term consequences for Jerusalem. (Book Internet)

Each of the Christian forces felt betrayed by the other. A new plan was made to attack Ascalon. Conrad took his troops to here, but no further help arrived, due to the lack of trust that had resulted from the failed siege. This mutual distrust would linger for a generation due to the defeat, to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land. After quitting Ascalon, Conrad returned to Constantinople to further his alliance with Manuel. Louis remained behind in Jerusalem until 1149. Back in Europe, Bernard of Clairvaux was humiliated by the defeat. Bernard considered it his duty to send an apology to the Pope and it is inserted in the second part of his Book of Consideration. There he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures. When his attempt to call a new crusade failed, he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether. He would die in 1153.

In 1171, Saladin, nephew of one of Nur ad-Din's generals, was proclaimed Sultan of Egypt, uniting Egypt and Syria and completely surrounding the crusader kingdom. Meanwhile the Byzantine alliance ended with the death of emperor Manuel I in 1180, and in 1187 Jerusalem capitulated to Saladin. His forces then spread north to capture all but the capital cities of the Crusader States, precipitating the Third Crusade. (Book Internet)

Overall the second crusade the strength of both the French and the German division of the expedition was wasted in Asia Minor, and the crusade accomplished nothing.

The First Crusade

2009-10-23T14:44:00.000-07:00

The First Crusade played a very important part in Medieval England. The First Crusade was an attempt to re-capture Jerusalem. After the capture of Jerusalem by the Muslims in 1076, any Christian who wanted to pay a pilgrimage to the city faced a very hard time. Muslim soldiers made Christianity a hard way of life. Muslim soldiers also tried to fill Jerusalem with danger for a Christian. This greatly angered all Christians.

The First Crusade also opened an era in which Western Europe came into direct contact with the great trade routes that united the civilizations of Eurasia. For the first time since the fall of the Roman empire, western Europe was not isolated, but a part of a greater world. Many things flowed along these trade routes. Some were good, such as paper, the compass, medicines and spices, new crops and advances in mathematics. Some were not so good, such as leprosy, gunpowder, and bubonic plague. Like most great events, there were many factors, some immediate and apparent, some basic and apparent, and some in between that went together to cause the people of western Europe to seek to conquest and hold the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean.

One of the causes of the First Crusade was that Europe was already in a period of expansion, and its capacity for war and conquest had grown during the years of fending off raiders from all direction. Most importantly from the standpoint of the crusades, the Italian city states had developed navies of merchant/fighting vessels that had seized control of the Mediterranean. They had reconquered Sicily and southern Italy from the Muslims, and there was a general sense that, like the Vikings and Magyars, the force of the Muslims was spent and that the way eastward lay open.

Another cause of the First Crusade was the spirit of religious reform that had led to the Investiture Controversy had been accompanied by an increase in popular spirituality. People were no longer to accept their religion passively; many wanted to participate actively and to do something positive in honor of their god. (Book Internet)

One of the major causes of the First Crusade was since their victory at the Battle of Manziker, the Seljuk Turks had been pressing towards Constantinople and were now actually within sight of the city.

"The leaders of the First Crusade included some of the most distinguished representatives of European knighthood. Count Raymond of Toulouse headed a band of volunteers from Provence in southern France. Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin commanded a force of French and Germans from the Rhinelands. Normandy sent Robert, William the Conqueror's eldest son. The Normans from Italy and Sicily were led by Bohemond, a son of Robert Guiscard, and his nephew Tancred."

The months which followed the Council of Clermont were marked by an epidemic of religious excitement in western Europe. Popular preachers everywhere took up the cry "God wills it!" and urged their hearers to start for Jerusalem. A monk named Peter the Hermit aroused large parts of France with his passionate eloquence, as he rode from town to town, carrying a huge cross before him and preaching to vast crowds. a horde of poor men, women, and children set out, unorganized and almost unarmed, on the road to the Holy Land. This was called the Peoples Crusade, it is also referred to as the Peasants Crusade. Dividing command of the mixed multitudes with a poor knight, called Walter the Penniless, and followed by a throng of about 80,000 persons, among whom were many women and children, Peter the Hermit set out for Constantinople leading the Peoples Crusade via an overland route through Germany and Hungary. Thousands of the Peoples Crusade fell in battle with the natives of the countries through which they marched, and thousands more perished miserably of hunger and exposure. The Peoples Crusade was badly organised - most of the people were unarmed and lacked the command and discipline of the military crusaders. The Byzantium emperor Alexius I sent his ragged allies as quickly as possible to Asia Minor, where most of them were slaughtered by the Turks. The daughter of Alexius, called Anna Comnena wrote a book about her father and the crusaders called the Alexiad which provides historical details about the first crusaders. Those crusaders who crossed the Bosphorus were surprised by the Turks, and almost all of the Peoples Crusade were slaughtered. Peter the Hermit did survive and eventually led the Crusaders in a procession around the walls of Jerusalem just before the city was taken.

Meanwhile real armies were gathering in the West. Recruits came in greater numbers from France than from any other country, a circumstance which resulted in the crusaders being generally called "Franks" by their Moslem foes. They had no single commander, but each contingent set out for Constantinople by its own route and at its own time.

The crusaders traversed Europe by different routes and reassembled at Constantinople. Crossing the Bosphorus, they first captured Nicaea, the Turkish capital, in Bithynia, and then set out across Asia Minor for Syria. Arriving at Antioch, the survivors captured that place, and then, after some delays, pushed on towards Jerusalem. The Siege of Antioch had lasted from October 1097 to June 1098. Reduced now to perhaps one-fourth of their original numbers, the crusaders advanced slowly to the city which formed the goal of all their efforts. When at length the Holy City burst upon their view, a perfect delirium of joy seized the crusaders. They embraced one another with tears of joy, and even embraced and kissed the ground on which they stood. As they passed on, they took off their shoes, and marched with uncovered head and bare feet, singing the words of the prophet: "Jerusalem, lift up thine eyes, and behold the liberator who comes to break thy chains." Before attacking it they marched barefoot in religious procession around the walls, with Peter the Hermit at their head. Then came the grand assault. The first assault made by the Christians upon the walls of the city was repulsed; but the second was successful, and the city was in the hands of the crusaders by July 1099. Godfrey of Bouillon and Tancred were among the first to mount the ramparts. Once inside the city, the crusaders massacred their enemies without mercy. A terrible slaughter of the infidels took place. For seven days the carnage went on, at the end of which time scarcely any of the Moslem faith were left alive. The Christians took possession of the houses and property of the infidels, each soldier having a right to that which he had first seized and placed his mark upon. (Book Internet)

"Against all odds, the first armed pilgrimage to the Holy Land was successful, and the Christians captured Jerusalem in 1100. They benefitted from the disunity among the Muslims and set up the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Although it was only ninety years before the Muslims had reorganized and taken back most of what they had lost, the effect of the crusaders' success was great. A heightened sense of confidence animated the Europeans and, with new influences from the East, culture and intellectual life flourished. Western Europe, so some historians hold, came of age."

The Life and Death of Charlemagne

2009-10-03T13:35:00.000-07:00

Charlemagne was King of the Franks. Charlemagne, means Charles the Great, and was mainly known as Charles I. Charlemagne was both a historical and legendary figure. There are several areas in which the legend contradict with the historical Charlemagne. Even historical account may exaggerate Charlemagne's achievement, in many cases.

Charlemagne was the son of Pepin III, who was also known as Pepin the Short. He was the brother of Carolman and Gisela. Originally, Pepin was a Mayor of the Palace for the dynasty known as the Merovingians. The Mayor of Palace helded great power, sometime the mayors had more powers than the kings; such Pepin. In AD 751, Pepin crowned himself as king of the Franks. Pepin started a new dynasty, known as the Carolingians.
At Pepin's death in AD 768, the kingdom was divided into two for Charles and Carolman. However rivalry between two brothers escalated into conflict, and ended with Carolman's death in 771. ThusAs a result of this, Charles became the sole ruler of the Franks. (Book Internet)

Charlemagne became involved in a series of campaigns or wars, to expand his kingdom. He fought in the war against the pagan kingdom of Saxony. When he received their surrender, he forced the Saxons to become Christians or else they were killed. In 778, he entered to Spain, with the intention to help a Moorish king to end the uprising. However he failed to capture Saragossa, and thus returned to France. On hsi way to France his rearguard was ambushed at Rencesvals. They were attacked by Gascons and Basques. Einhard only listed among the dead: Anselm, Count Palatine; Eggihard, the King's steward; and Roland, Lord of the March of Brittany.

Charles had to quell a rebellion among the Saxons, where he executed over 4000 Saxons as example in 782. There was sporadic rebellions over 22 years. One of his sons, Pepin, plotted against Charles, during his campaign against the Avars. When this conspiracy was uncovered, he forced his son to take up a monastery life.

It was Charlemange who helped the Roman church to break away completely from those church of the eastern Byzantine Empire. As a result, when he went to Rome, Pope Leo III crowned him as the Holy Roman Emperor. It wasn't until 812, when Michael I recognised Charlemange as Emperor of the West.

His rule is also associated with the Carolingian Renaissance, a revival of art, religion, and culture through the medium of the Catholic Church. Through his foreign conquests and internal reforms, Charlemagne helped define both Western Europe and the Middle Ages. He is numbered as Charles I in the regnal lists of France, Germany, and the Holy Roman Empire. (Book Internet)

The Investiture Controversy

2009-09-26T18:51:00.000-07:00

The Investiture Controversy was about the ceremony by which a man became a bishop or an archbishop. During the investiture, the bishop or archbishop, elect was given a signet ring representing his authority to act legally for his territory, a long staff like a shepherd's crook signifying his spiritual leadership of the people of the diocese, a lump of dirt that demonstrated his possession and ownership of the lands with which the churches in his diocese had been endowed, and a white woolen stole to hang around his neck indicating that he was a legitimate successor to a long tradition of spiritual teaching and leadership reaching all the way back to the apostles.

The Investiture Controversy was a political crisis in the 11th century, in which the pope and the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire argued about, essentially, which of them had the supreme power over the other. It also refers to related controversies in other European countries, most notably in England, regarding the dual allegiance of bishops to their sovereign and to the pope. It is also considered as the most significant conflict between secular and religious powers in medieval Europe.

It began as a dispute between the Holy Roman Emperor and the Gregorian Papacy concerning who would control appointments of church officials. Pope Gregory VII condemned lay investiture in 1078 as an unjustified assertion of secular authority over the church; the issue was pivotal in his dispute with King Henry IV and in the larger struggle over Henry's refusal to obey papal commands. Henry successfully drove Gregory from Rome and installed an anti pope, but it would be Gregory's rejection of lay investiture that would ultimately prevail. Henry I of England renounced lay investiture in return for the guarantee that homage would be paid to the king before consecration. The Concordat of Worms forged a similar compromise between Henry V and Calixtus II. (Book Internet) The controversy, undercutting the Imperial power established by the Salian Emperors would eventually lead to nearly fifty years of civil war in Germany, the triumph of the great dukes and abbots, and the disintegration of the German empire, a condition from which it would not recover until the reunification of Germany in the 19th century.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -The Holy Roman Empire - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

"The Investiture Controversy had some far-reaching effects. The Church was now under the control of a professional elite and had established the principle that non-professionals shouldn't have any say in how the Church ran its affairs. When the Protestants rebelled against the Catholic Church four hundred years later, one of the things that they demanded was that lay people should have a big role in running the Church. Then, too, the Church had gained its ends through politics and had to continue playing politics. "

The Investiture Controversy also effect Germany. (Book Internet) In Germany, the authority of the emperors had been damaged to the point that the region didn't develop a national government until 1870 with a war against France. The First and Second World Wars, which took about 100,000,000 lives, were continuations of that first conflict. As a result of this it could be said that there wouldn't have been any Adolf Hitler if there hadn't been an Investiture Controversy.

This is what the Investiture Controversy was and how it change the balance of power between the papal authority and the leadership of Europe.

Just War, Jihad and the Crusades

2009-09-07T20:11:00.000-07:00

The concepts and actions carried out in the names of Just War and Jihad lead to the Crusades in many ways. Many of the ideas of just war and jihad caused the crusades to occur. They, in a sense, made it okay to go to war and start the crusades.

The Crusades were a series of military campaigns during the time of Medieval England against the Muslims of the Middle East. In 1076, the Muslims had captured Jerusalem. Jerusalem was the most holy of holy places for Christians. This is because Jesus had been born in nearby Bethlehem and Jesus had spent most of his life in Jerusalem. He was crucified in Jerusalem on Calvary Hill. Jerusalem was the most important place on Earth for a true Christian which is why Christians called Jerusalem the "City of God". However, Jerusalem was also extremely important to the Muslims also. This is because Muhammad, the founder of the Muslim faith, had been there and there was great joy in the Muslim world when Jerusalem was captured. A dome, called the Dome of the Rock, was built on the rock where Muhammad was said to have sat and prayed and it was so holy that no Muslim was allowed to tread on the rock or touch it when visiting the Dome. As a result, the Christian fought to get Jerusalem back while the Muslims fought to keep Jerusalem. These wars were to last nearly 200 years.

The jihad is often translated as "holy war on behalf of Islam". To them if a war is for the will of Allah then it is right to fight. This is one way inwhich the idea of jihad influenced the crusades. The Islams thought of the crusades as holy wars. Therefore they agreed to fight in them. (Internet Book)

Most Muslim Scholars see the world as divided into two houses, the House of Peace and the House of War. To them the lands controlled by Muslims belong to the House of Peace, while those who have not yet submitted to Islam belong to the House of War until they are subdued.
So the entire context of the eastern Crusades is one of response to continuous Islamic aggression.

"In the year 1095, people were shocked in Western Europe by the words of Pope Urban II, "The Muslims have conquered Jerusalem". Pope Urban wanted the Christians to retake Jerusalem from the Muslims. People shouted "God wills it". . . Religion was important to the knights in the Middle Ages. One of the results of the Crusades was the founding of new Christian religious orders. Most of the monks were former knights who fought against each other in the Crusades. The knights did capture Jerusalem for a short period of time, but the Muslims kept on re-taking Jerusalem. The knights gained temporary power, but lost many soldiers during the deadly Crusades, not to mention causing the death of many innocent Muslims. The Crusades is a violent reminder of the greed of Middle Ages."

"Unlike Islam, Christianity had not yet developed the notion of a holy war. In the fifth century Augustine described what constituted a just war but excluded the practice of battle for the purpose of religious conversion or to destroy heretical religious ideas. Leaders of nations might decide to go to war for just reasons, but war was not to be a tool of the church. Unfortunately, using Augustine's just war language, Popes and Crusaders saw themselves as warriors for Christ rather than as a people seeking justice in the face of an encroaching enemy threat."

The Pope called for a war of the cross. Both, the Muslims and the Christians, thought that "God" was on their side. However, both sides can not be right. (Internet Book)

Jihad And Just War

2009-09-04T21:14:00.000-07:00

Jihad and Just War are often described as the same thing and are often used interchangeably. However, are they really the same thing? Before answering this question it is important to have a basic understanding on both of these concepts.

Jihad can be described as "holy war", or more precisely it means the legal effort to expand the territories ruled by Muslims at the expense of territories ruled by non-Muslims. The purpose of jihad is not directly to spread the Islamic faith but to extend sovereign Muslim power. Jihad thus has the eventual goal of achieving Muslim dominion over the entire globe. Jihad ha two main different meanings. The first is that Muslims who interpret their faith differently are infidels and therefore targets of jihad. The second meaning rejects the legal definition of jihad as armed conflict and tells Muslims to withdraw from the worldly concerns to achieve spiritual depth. Jihad in the sense of territorial expansion has always been a central aspect of Muslim life. That's how Muslims came to rule much of the Arabian Peninsula by the time of the Prophet Muhammad's death in 632. Jihad is often described as the fifth pillar of Islam. (Internet Book)

"An appeal to the Islamic tradition of defensive jihad by which every Muslim is obligated, as an individual duty, to take up arms against invaders. It lays out the justification not only for the attacks of September 11 but also for other terrorist attacks linked to bin Laden’s al–Qaeda group, notably, the bombings of the two American embassies in East Africa and of the U.S.S. Cole. It also provides a warrant for future attacks by every Muslim who can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it for a continuing war by terrorist and other means by Muslims against Americans and their allies."

Just War can be described as it deals with the justification of how and why wars are fought. The justification can be either theoretical or historical. The theoretical aspect is concerned with ethically justifying war and the forms that warfare may or may not take. The historical aspect, deals with the historical body of rules or agreements that have applied in various wars across the ages. There are sveral principles of Just War. One of them is that a just war can only be waged as a last resort. All non-violent options must be exhausted before the use of force can be justified. It continues on to say that a war is just only if it is waged by a legitimate authority. Even just causes cannot be served by actions taken by individuals or groups who do not constitute an authority sanctioned by whatever the society and outsiders to the society deem legitimate. A just war can only be fought to redress a wrong suffered. Further, a just war can only be fought with right intentions: the only permissible objective of a just war is to redress the injury. A war can only be just if it is fought with a reasonable chance of success. The ultimate goal of a just war is to re-establish peace. More specifically, the peace established after the war must be preferable to the peace that would have prevailed if the war had not been fought. The violence used in the war must be proportional to the injury suffered. States are prohibited from using force not necessary to attain the limited objective of addressing the injury suffered. The weapons used in war must discriminate between combatants and non-combatants. Civilians are never permissible targets of war, and every effort must be taken to avoid killing civilians. These are the main principles of Just War. Just War can also be described as a war that needs to be morrally justified. (Internet Book)

While the idea of just war is deeply rooted in Western culture, it is perhaps more strongly rooted today in international law, in American military doctrine and practice, and even in political culture. Though the just war tradition has important Christian roots, it differs from the Islamic juristic tradition in that it can be employed without explicitly religious premises. Similarly, in Western political thought and theology more generally, the nature of the political community, the role of government, and the use of armed force are conceived in secular rather than religious terms. All these features differentiate just war tradition from the juristic tradition of jihad by the authority of the caliph.

In conclusion, Just War and Jihad are very simular, however, just war in a way is an effect of the original idea of jihad.

Jihad

2009-08-28T22:23:00.000-07:00

There are many different views on the idea of Jihad. However, the main definition for Jihad is the Arabic word for what can be translated as a struggle or effort to fight. In the West, the word is generally understood to mean holy war. In the Quran jihad is referred to as a military struggle on behalf of Islam. But the Quran also refers to jihad as an spiritual struggle toward self-improvement and moral cleansing. It is said that the prophet Muhammad thought of this spiritual version of holy war to be of far more importance than the physical version. To the Muslims the idea of jihad is considered to be part of every Muslim's duty; to improve society, and improving oneself before the Day of Judgement. This would be considered verbal jihad. In other words it means to strive for justice through words and non-violent actions. Muhammad encouraged Muslims to demand justice in the name of Allah.

"Personal jihad is the most important form. This type of jihad, called the Jihadun-Nafs, is the intimate struggle to purify one's soul of evil influences -- both subtle and overt. It is the struggle to cleanse one's spirit of sin."

Another view on jihad is physical Jihad. This relates to the use of physical force in defense of Muslims against oppression and transgression by the enemies of Allah. Allah commands that Muslims lead peaceful lives and not transgress against anyone.

Jihad is sometimes considered as the Sixth Pillar of Islam. The importance of jihad is roted in the Quran's command to struggle in the path of God and through the Prophet Muhammad and is early Companions. (Book Internet)

This is a few of the many views of the idea of jihad. However, the effect of having many different views of jihad is a vicious clash between followers of different religions, each of whom believes that God is on their side and that the other side is is of Satan. This is far from right; God can not be on all sides, therefore one side must be wrong. There is an absolute truth in the universe; meaning that both sides can not be right.

Even though jihad was a main idea in Islamic history, in recent years it has spread into other religions and groups. Jihad is a very broad word. There are many different views of this word and many people look at it differently. In conclusion, Jihad is a very important concept and is still effecting the modern day world.

St. Augustine: Just War

2009-08-22T18:02:00.000-07:00

St. Augustine was born in Tagaste, Numidia in North Africa. His mother was a Christian, but his father remained a pagan until late in life. After a rather unremarkable childhood, Augustine drifted through several philosophical systems before converting to Christianity at the age of thirty-one. At the age of nineteen, Augustine read Cicero's Hortensius, an experience that led him into the fascination with philosophical questions and methods that would remain with him throughout his life. After a few years as a Manichean, he became attracted to the more skeptical positions of the Academic philosophers. Although tempted in the direction of Christianity upon his arrival at Milan in 383, he turned first to neoplatonism. During this time, Augustine became a father to the child of a mistress.

Augustine had studied at Carthage, he used this fact to gain employment in teaching in Carthage and then in Rome and Milan. Here he met Ambrose who is credited for Augustine's conversion and who baptized Augustine in 387. Returning to his homeland soon after his conversion, he was ordained a presbyter in 391, taking the position as bishop of Hippo in 396, a position which he held until his death.

St. Augustine affirms that the world was created by God from nothing, through a free act of His will. Augustine also affirms that the absolute unity and the spirituality of the human soul. In regard to the nature of the soul he affirms that the soul is simple and immortal. The soul has three functions: being, understanding, and loving. Corresponding to three faculties: intellectual memory, intelligence, and will. The primary among these three faculties is the will. The will of man is free. Three kinds of evil can be distinguished: metaphysical, physical, and moral.. Metaphysical evil is the lack of a perfection.Under this aspect, all creatures are evil because they fall short of full perfection, which is God alone. Physical evil consists in the privation of a perfection due to nature. The only true evil is moral evil; sin. Sin is an action contrary to the will of God. The cause of moral evil is not God, who is good, nor is it matter for matter is a creature of God and therefore is good. Neither is the will as a faculty of the soul evil, for it too has been created by God. The cause of moral evil the free will, by which man is able to turn from the right order, to oppose himself to the will of God. Sin, from the very fact it is decadence of being, carries in itself its own punishment. By sinning man injures himself in his being, for he falls from what he was created to be. As a result of this fall there exist the sufferings which he must bear.

"Traditionally Augustine is regarded as the father of what has developed as the Western theory of just war." (Internet Book)

"Fifth-century philosopher St. Augustine of Hippo sought to provide an answer to the question. His approach formed the foundation of the ‘just war’ tradition, which has had enormous influence upon moral-philosophical thought on military issues in the West ever since. This major new study identifies Augustine’s fundamental premises, reconstructs his just-war theory, and critically evaluates the reconstructed theory in light of his historical context and neo-Platonic and Christian philosophical considerations." (Internet Book)

The main point of the Just War Theory is that while war may be awful, it is nevertheless sometimes a necessary aspect of politics.

Augustine believed that, given Jesus Christ's call for his followers to be peacemakers, as stated in Matthew 5:9, using no violence, war is a lamentable sin taking place in the earthly world, and that it can never establish eternal peace. However, he also believed from a practical point of view that if it is necessary to defend the innocent against evil, violence may be used. This constituted his theory of "just war." He concluded that there must be at least two requirements for just war: proper cause and proper authority. The first requirement means that wars be waged only for the purpose of establishing peace. The second requirement is that wars be waged by governing authorities, because they are established by God in the natural world for a providential reason.

Most Important Thing I Learned This Year

2009-05-16T19:57:00.000-07:00

Throughout the year I have learned many important things; in which have changed how I view many topics in the world. However, the most important thing I learned this year is the relationship between Christianity and the Roman Empire.

One of the major relationships between Christianity and the Roman empire is how much they innfluenced each other. Rome started out with a polytheistic religion. The Romans believed that with the right ritutual they would have a right relationship with the gods. Even tough this was the state religion, they were still very tolerant of other religions in the empire.

Christianity was very different from the Roman state religion. The Christian relgion started with a man called Jesus of Nazareth. In about 26 A.D. he bagan to preach, telling prople that he was the son of God. He told the Romans that what was important was not strict law, but rather the inner change of the soul. Jesus taught that there was one God and that his commandment was: to love God and one another. Around 29 A.D. he was cruxified by the Roman procurator, Pontius.

Christianity was greatly influenced in Rome by the Apostles Paul and Peter. Paul of Tarus reached out to non-Jews. The Bible includes an epistle written by the Apostle Paul to the Christians in Rome. The book of Acts records that Paul, though Jewish, was a Roman citizen by birth. When the Jews accused Paul of bringing Gentiles into their synagogue, Paul made an appeal for Caesar to hear his case. He is thought to be beheaded under the rule of Nero. The Apostle Peter is known to have established his headquarters in the city, following his thirty-year ministry in the East. The Apostle Peter was martyred in Rome.

Paul Preaching in Rome

The Roman tolerence towards Christians began to change. They tolerated only religions that did not threatened public order and public morals. Many Romans began to veiew Christians as a rebelious people, because they would not worship the empire's gods or emperor. As an effect of this, the Christians were looked upon as treasonist, and were killed for it. If they were caught, they faced death for failing to worship the emperor. It was not uncommon for emperors to turn the people against the Christians when Rome was faced with difficulties in time. Such as in AD 64, part of Rome was burned down. The Emperor Nero blamed the Christians and the people turned on them. Arrests and executions followed. As a result of these dangers, Christains often had to meet in private.

However, as new emperors came to rule, these extremes went away. Christianity survived all of these difficulties; and is still a thriving religion today. The numbers of Christians in the city grew, particularly as the power and integrity of the empire decayed and the people of Rome lost faith in the old gods. A major turning point for the Christian faith was in 310 A.D. In this year, General Constantine was about to wage battle against general Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. He was miracusly inspired to take the cross as his standard. Sure enough the following day he won the battle and became sole emperor. He pronounced the religion of state to be Christianity and donated various properties to the Christians so that they might carry on their faith. After this point in time, Christianity grew to new lengths. In 378 to 395 a new emperor, Theosoius the Great, made Christinaity the offical religion of Rome. Romans went from tolerating Christianity, to persecuting all Christians that pushed against the state, to being the state religion. Christiantiy had triumphed.

General Constantine

Throughout all of this, it showed me that God works in amazing ways and that the true religion will always overcome and surpress all of the other false lies out in the world. It also showed me that I should be very thankful that I life in a country where I can practice my faith. It also makes me question what I would do if I was put in the situation of the Romans that were killed for their faith.

This is the most important thing I learned this year.

The Fall of the Roman Civilization

2009-05-09T17:02:00.000-07:00

The fall in the Roman civilization was a dramatic event in the history of the world. There are many opinions on why the Roman civilization did fall. One of the popular explanation was the split into an eastern and western empire governed by separate emperors. Some of the other explanations are: the plagues, the use of lead pipes, the Roman army, and liberal thinking emperors.

The Roman Empire was once one empire, but split. The eastern half became the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Constantinople. While the western half remained centered in Italy. The eastern Roman empire was the stronger of the two and had a trading system with Asia, Africa, and Europe. This led to a more wealthier civilization. The eastern cities were also better fortified and had the Black Sea as a natural barrier against invaders. The western empire was much weaker and did not have the trading abilities that the eastern empire had. These cities were often exposed to attackers along the northern boarder.

Another reason in which why the Roman civilization fell is because of the plagues and diseases that swept the empire. The plagues reduced the population, and affected the fertility of the survivors greatly. The diseases made the Roman people weary. These along with accidents of the time, such as lead pipes, hurt the population of the Roman civilization. The lead pipes poisoned the people, lowering their birth-rate and intelligence level.

Another major cause for the Roman civilization to collapse is because of the fall in the Roman military. The military got out of hand due to the lack of discipline. As the military started to gain power, loyal Roman soldier were scarce. These powerful generals tended to use the power of their armies to further their own political ambitions. At a point in time they gained so much power that at their word emperors would be assassinated, even though it was mainly for their own profit. In the end, the Roman empire could not produce enough to support and maintain the military capability necessary to defend a vast empire in a hostile environment. (Hadas 143)

Another reason in which why the Roman civilization collapsed is because of the liberal thinking emperors. They attempted to spend too much on the poor in their efforts to lift them up. As a result of this it drained the financial resources of the Empire.

As the eastern civilization weakened away, the western empire fell in A.D. 476, when last emperor was removed. After the fall of the Roman civilization the roads and public structure fell, trade declined, and Germanic powers claimed parts of Rome. (Tainter 143)

Through all of these events and actions the Roman civilization eventually fell. However, it showed the people of today an important idea; the decline and fall of empires is a repeating pattern of world history. Even large empires eventually break into smaller pieces.

Hadas, Moses, et al. Imperial Rome. Great Ages of man: A History of the World’s Cultures. New York: Time-Life Books. 1965.

Tainter, Joseph A. The Collapse of Complex Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988.

Pompeii and the Eruption of Vesuvius

2009-04-24T19:57:00.000-07:00

In 79 A.D the great volcano of Mount Vesuvius exploded killing many of the inhabitants of the near by city Pompeii. This was a very extraordinary event in the history of the Roman Empire.

The city of Pompeii was an ancient city located in southern Italy southeast of Naples. It was founded in the sixth or early fifth century B.C., and was a Roman colony by 80 B.C. It became a prosperous port and resort with many noted villas, temples, theaters, and baths. The city was under the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. It was a favorite resort for wealthy Romans, reaching a population of about 20,000 at the beginning of the Christian era. It was also a place of considerable trade and was the port town of Nola and other inland cities of the fertile valley of the Sarnies.

Pompeii was damaged by and earthquake in 63 A.D., but the city would encounter much more than this in its coming years.

On August 24, 79 A.D. Mount Vesuvius blew up and tons of molten ash, pumice and sulfuric gas miles into the atmosphere. The poisonous vapors and molten debris suffocated the inhabitants of Pompeii and the near by cities of Herculaneum and Stabiae. Tons of falling debris filled the streets until nothing remained to be seen of the once thriving communities. The cities remained buried and undiscovered for almost 1700 years until excavation began in 1748.

In a second letter to Tacitus, Pliny describes what happened to him and to his mother during the second day of the disaster: "Ashes were already falling, not as yet very thickly. I looked round: a dense black cloud was coming up behind us, spreading over the earth like a flood.'Let us leave the road while we can still see,'I said,'or we shall be knocked down and trampled underfoot in the dark by the crowd behind.'We had scarcely sat down to rest when darkness fell, not the dark of a moonless or cloudy night, but as if the lamp had been put out in a closed room.
You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness for evermore.

There were people, too, who added to the real perils by inventing fictitious dangers: some reported that part of Misenum had collapsed or another part was on fire, and though their tales were false they found others to believe them. A gleam of light returned, but we took this to be a warning of the approaching flames rather than daylight. However, the flames remained some distance off; then darkness came on once more and ashes began to fall again, this time in heavy showers. We rose from time to time and shook them off, otherwise we should have been buried and crushed beneath their weight. I could boast that not a groan or cry of fear escaped me in these perils, but I admit that I derived some poor consolation in my mortal lot from the belief that the whole world was dying with me and I with it."

Archaeologists began excavating Pompeii during the 18th century. Here they found the remains of people, ancient buildings, and other artifacts preserved amid the volcanic debris. Among the structures uncovered was The Forum of Pompeii. (McIntosh 29)

The ash mixed with rain, settled around the volcano’s victims, creating molds. These molds remained intact long after the bodies had decayed. Archaeologists pour liquid plaster into the forms, preserving the exact shapes of the bodies at the moment of death. (Place, 28)

Since that fateful day there have been subsequent eruptions that have reshaped the mountain. They occurred about every 100 years until 1037. On the 16th December 1631, a major eruption destroyed all the towns that had grown at the foot of the mountain. Over the next 300 years there were 23 eruptions of various degrees. The last known eruption was in 1944 when the Allied forces were attacking Italy. The volcano bubbles and smokes yet today. With modern technology, the people living in the area should be given adequate warning prior to any future eruption. Property will be damaged but lives can be saved.

Place, Robin. Bodies From the Past. Thomson Learning, New York, 1995.

McIntosh, Jane. Archeology. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1994.

The Stoic Movement of Ancient Rome

2009-04-18T12:17:00.000-07:00

In Ancient Rome they believed in the philosophy of Stoicism. They were called the stoics, because the school's founder, Zeno of Cyprus met his students at the Stoa Poikile on the north side of the market place in Athens.Through rational living and self-control, Zeno and his followers sought to find the source of virtue, and thus happiness, within themselves rather than in external things. The stoics believed that the world is a changing conflagration, or fire, which is limited and ordered by a creative force called Logos, or God. Virtue consists of a man's consciously governing the fires of his action, or desires, by reason. The virtuous man is self-sufficient and undisturbed, this meaning that they were not a slave of circumstances or emotions. Like Socrates, he faces events with calmness, living an honest and rational life. Stoics believed in the kinship and equality of all men, on the grounds that every person possesses a spark of the divine fire, or God. They saw the highest good in the contemplation of God and the universe. The history of Stoicism is divided into three periods called the Old Stoa (300 B.C.-129 B.C.), the Middle Stoa (129 B.C.-30 B.C.), and the Late Stoa (30 B.C.-200 A.D.). During the Late Stoa, the Stoic school shifted from Athens to Rome, where Stoicism stressed the importance of citizenship and honor. Roman Stoics often were advisers to Roman emperors. Stoicism even influenced the Christians in ancient Rome.

Stoicism was the most influential philosophy in the Roman Empire during the period preceding the rise of Christianity. Marcus Aurelius was among the most famous Stoics of the Roman era, as well as one of the fiercest persecutors of the Roman Christians during his reign as emperor. The Roman stoics influenced Christians then and changed Christianity that is still studied today.

Zeno of Cyprus

Stoicism believed that all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. They held that differences such as rank and wealth are of no importance in social relationships. Thus, before Christianity, Stoics recognized and advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. (Durant 975)

The primary duty one owes is to the state, according to Stoicism. Since God is using the Roman state to further law and civilization, performing one's duty is a religious act. The principal being to which one owes respect is, of course, God; since God is working out his will in history by using the Roman state and Roman officials , the respect one shows for Roman authorities is also a respect shown for God. (Durant 301)

Stoicism was in Rome during the Hellenistic Era. After the death of Zeno of Citium, the Stoic school was headed by Cleanthes and Chrysippus, and its teachings were carried to Rome in 155 by Diogenes of Babylon. Stoic ideas appear in the greatest work of Roman literature, and later the philosophy was adopted by Seneca, Lucan, a poet and associate of the Emperor Nero, Epictetus, and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Stoicism is perhaps the most significant philosophical school in the Roman Empire, and much of our contemporary views and popular mythologies about Romans are derived from Stoic principles.

In 86, the Roman's excepted the Greek philosophy, stoicism, with open arms. Many Roman politicians at least adopted the high moral tone of Stoicism according to which only virtue is a genuine good, while money, health and even life itself are simply preferred indifferents. Many famous figures in Ancient Rome were either believed in stoicism or had a person who influenced them that did. Such as Cato the Younger and Scipio Aemilianus. Pompey thought it sufficiently important to look in on the Stoic philosopher Panaetius of Rhodes in his comings and goings. Octavian had a Stoic tutor. Among the Roman emperors, the Stoic philosopher Seneca was the advisor of Nero.

The Greeks followed stoicism before the Romans, but he Romans were a far more practical people than the Greeks, and more skilled at governing. Stoicism became the strongest force in Roman life. The two best known Roman Stoic writers were Epictetus, a slave, and Marcus Aurelius, an Emperor. Perhaps we could best get a feel for their attitudes by reading their words directly for once truth becomes of secondary importance to living then it is feelings and not logical order which tell us the real meaning of a culture.

Ancient Rome was a strong believer in Stoicism and this belief was passed on to the Christians. This shows that Stoicism was a great philiosophy and that it influenced the Christian religion to this day.

Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. Simon and Schuster, Inc., New York, 1950.

Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. Simon and Schuster, Inc., New York, 1950.

The Relation Between the Growth of Christianity and the Roman Empire

2009-04-11T09:39:00.000-07:00

The popular religion, known as Christianity, began its main growth during the Roman Empire. Christianity was one of the many different religions competing for the attention of people of the Roman Empire during the first three centuries CE.The growth that took place during this time was extraordinary.

One of the reasons for this growth, of the Christian religion was due to the popularity of different facets of the religion. These included its universal acceptance of all people regardless of their pasts, the strong sense of community within its congregations, its duty to care for the weak, sick and needy. The Roman people greatly liked these ideas. Combined with the great demographic shifts that were occurring in the Roman Empire, Christianity went through a time of great development and expansion. With the Roman Empire new there were many immigrants that wanted to have acceptance into the Roman society, to find a sense of belonging. Since Christianity accepted all, these immigrant would be given acceptance into a close-knit community.

Another way in which Christianity was spread throughout the Roman Empire was while the empire was newly established the Romans were tolerant of different religious customs. This gave Christians the opportunity to teach and spread their message to the Roman people. One man who spread the Christian religion throughout Rome was St. Paul who founded Christian churches in Asia Minor and Greece. Eventually, he took his teachings to Rome itself. In Rome there was a road system throughout all of the empire. St. Paul walked on these very roads to spread the message of Christ. By just the fourth century Christianity was known at the state religion within the Roman Empire.

Another man who taught the Christian message in Rome was Peter. The Apostle Peter is known to have established his headquarters in the city, following his thirty-year ministry in the East. The Apostle Peter was martyred in Rome.

Within the Roman Empire there were many ways to get from one part of the region to the other. This helped Christianity to have the ability to spread. Roads led from Rome to every part of its dominion. Travel was made, if not easy, at least not impossible. This ease of communication made it possible for disciples to spread the Christian message all over the ancient world. Another example of a human who used this is St. Paul; as mentioned previously. If the Roman Empire had not existed, missionaries would have found it extremely difficult to cross the borders of very different and often warring nations without finding themselves accused and punished as an enemy, before they had a chance to spread the good news.

Another reason in which the Christian message was spread throughout Rome, was that it was a very grand empire with many types of people with in it. Also the cruelty of the Roman empires grew the faith of those already converted and converted yet more. And lastly, the oppressed nature of the subjects of the Roman Empire made the message of Christ welcome to these lower classes. The message was for the rich and the poor. (Ackroyed 127)

The first converts were usually the poor and slaves for they had a great deal to gain from the Christians. If they were caught, they faced death for failing to worship the emperor. It was not uncommon for emperors to turn Rome's people against the Christian religion when Rome was faced with difficulties. (Bass 41)

This is how Christianity was spread throughout Rome. The Roman Empire helped the growth of the Christian religion greatly.

Ackroyd, Pete. Ancient Rome. DK Publishing, Inc., New York, 2005.

Bass, Newton T. Timelines of History: Volume II. Grolier, Scholastic Library Publishing, Connecticut, 2005.

The Greek and Roman gods

2009-03-02T15:48:00.000-08:00

The Greeks and Romans had many similarities and contrasts. One area in which this took place is in their gods.

It was in the late 4th Century B.C. that Roman and Greek mythology began to intertwine. The Greeks and the Romans were very different people at this point in time. The Romans were war based and worked on expanding their territory. The Greeks, however, were art based. They created beautiful statues that held much importance. By the 2nd Century B.C. the Romans made significant progress in conquering a large portion of Greece. Here their different life styles began to interact and intermix. Before long the gods of theses religions influenced each other and were accepted. This is how we get two different religions with the same gods.

Both of the major and minor gods were in both mythologies. Such as
Erinyes or Furiae, Eris or Discordia, Eros or Cupid, Fates or Morae, Graces or Charities, Helios or Sol, Hours or Horae, Pan or Faunus, and Tyche or Fortuna.

"Much of the Roman mythology was barrowed from the Greeks. But while the stories remain essentially the same, the names have been changed. The Romans also have myths of their own, completely separate from thoses of the Greeks." (Bolton 245)

The Greeks and Romans shared the same stories, but used different names. Such as both religions had the twelve Olympians, but each had different names. The twelve Olympians in Greek mythology are: Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Hestia, Hera, Ares, Athena, Apollo, Aphrodite, Hermes, Artemis and Hephaestus. The twelve Olympians in Roman mythology are: Jupiter,Neptune, Pluto, Vesta, Juno, Mars, Minerva, Apollo, Venus, Mercury, Diana and Vulcan.

Many of the Roman and Greek gods have the same character, but with different names. One example is the Greek god Zeus. In Roman mythology he is known as Jupiter. However, in both religions he is the lord of the sky, gods, thunder,and Rain. He is also the known as the cloud-gatherer. This shows that both saw him as the same person with the same characteristics, but just used a different name to refer to him.

The gods were like humans, but more magnificent. There superhuman qualities, of courage, skill, and intelligence, were for people to imitate. But these wounderful super beings also fell in love and fought wach other. Even then, they did not suffer pain, or die, as they did not have blood in their bodies, but divine ichor. (Hull 7)

The Greeks and Romans also believed that the same gods created them, but agian just used different names. They thought of their creation as: In the beginning, there was only Chaos and Eros. Gaea, the earth, Erebus, the underworld, and Night emerged from the mixing of these two, and Gaea gave birth to Uranus, the heavens, who then became her mate, and Oceanus, the oceans. Gaea and Uranus together produced the twelve Titans, three Cyclopes, and three hundred-handed giants, or Hecatoncheires, but Uranus feared his children as a threat to his throne, and bade Gaea take them back into her womb. Gaea loved her children, however, and hated Uranus' tyranny. She supplied her youngest child, Chronos, with a sickle, and told him to kill his father with it. He cut off Uranus' genitals, and these fell into the sea and from them were created Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and the Fates, the Giants, and the Meliai nymphs. Chronos succeeded Uranus on the throne and married his sister Rhea. He freed the Titans and shared his kingdom among them, but imprisoned the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires in Tartarus, a fiery pit much like Hell. Chronos and Rhea had six children, who would become six of the gods of the Greek pantheon. Chronos, however, was similarly afraid of his children, and decided to swallow him. Rhea plotted to keep the youngest, Zeus, out of Chronos' way, and gave her husband a rock swaddled in cloth to swallow instead. Zeus was raised on the island of Crete and grew into a handsome youth. Eventually he slipped Chronos a drink to vomit up his other five siblings, and they and Prometheus, one of the Titans, fought and defeated Chronos and the Titans for power. Zeus ruled the earth and married his sister Hera; the gods together created humans to entertain and amuse them as they watched from their home on Mount Olympus.

These are the simularities and contrasts of the Roman and Greek gods.

Bolton, Lesley. The Everything Classical Mythology Book. F+W Publications, Inc., Ma, USA, 2002.

Hull, Robert. Religion & the gods. Sea-toSea Publications, Minnesota, Ca, 2007.

The Art of Ancient Rome

2009-02-28T10:08:00.000-08:00

The art of Ancient Rome was greatly influenced by Etruscan art. This also meant that it had a close relationship with Greek art. Roman art really starts to evolve in 500 B.C. with the beginning of the Roman Republic. The Romans were very interested in portraiture; that is making statues that replicate one particular person. The Greeks, however, were interested in ideals, while the Roman were interested in reality. They wanted to show people how they really were instead of making them look as if they were gods.

In about 200 B.C. the Romans conquered Greece and began to imitate their art style. During their conquest in Greece, they looted town and brought the art home. They also brought sculptors home to serve as slaves. The first Roman statues were created in the Roman Republic. Another type of Roman art was painting on plaster. These paintings were painted on a wall, that was made up of three layers of plaster and three layers of a special coating. The colors were applied when the plaster was still wet. This made the amazing paintings to last for the ages to come. The Romans also painted on canvas. These paintings were often of famous battles. They were put in temples or public buildings. Unfortunately none of these paintings have withstood time.

"By the time of the empire, there was a great demand for scullptures to honor the emperor and other important people. The sculptures were put up in public quares, halls, and temples, and some were even placed on top of columns. The idea was to show the power of the empire. Many statues were made of the first emperor, Augustus, and most made him look like a young hero." (Morris 7)

Art was often in the houses of the uper class Romans. They would have beautiful floors covered with mosacis. Mosacis are pictures made with thousands of tiny tiles. There would also be paintings on their walls. (Minnis 19)

Another type of Rome art is architecture. One example is the Triumphal Arch of Tibias. It was made of many different types of archs and columns. The triumphal arch used relief sculpture and inscription to carry its historic and commemorative messages. The Romans also built the Colosseum and the Pantheon. The Colosseum was originally four stories high. It had a total spectator capacity of 45,000-55,000. The Amphitheater is built of travertine outside, and of tufa and brick in the interior. The main pedestals were built of marble blocks. This shows how artistic the Romans were.

The art of Rome in the first and second centuries mainly continued to imitate the traditional styles of Greek art. In the third century, however, many new ideas were established in Roman art. The first new style in Roman art was the taste for bloodshed in art. This was a result of the wars with the Germans in the north. One example is the column of Marcus Aurelius. In it there were many senes of violence and bloodshed. Second, there was an increasing use of the drill, rather than the chisel. Even thou it was easier and faster, it gave the art a different look. The third way in which Rome art changed is the new concern for the soul. This was because there were more and more Christians in the Roman Empire. In art, this shows up as a lot of emphasis on the eyes, which were thought to be the windows to the soul, often with the eyes looking upward to heaven, or toward the gods.

As Rome expanded it took its art with it. It was excepted by many different peoples and its influence and heritage survives in all branches of the arts today.

Minnis, Ivan. You Are in Ancient Rome, Raintree, Inc.; Chicago, Illinois, 2005.

Morris, Ting. Arts and Crafts of Ancient Rome. Smart Apple Media; North Man kato, 2007.

Final Questions

2008-12-11T19:22:00.001-08:00

1) The most prominent building in a Sumerian city-state was?
-----a) zigguart *
-----b) city dwelling
-----c) defense tower
-----d) public building
2) The Sumerian city-states contained how many major social groups?
-----a) two
-----b) three *
-----c) four
-----d) five
3) What city-state was north of Sumerian?
-----a) Marathon
-----b)Thermopylae
-----c) Akkadians *
-----d) Issus
4) What was the climate like in Mesopotamia?
-----a) ferocious floods
-----b) heavy downpours
-----c) scorching winds
-----d) all of the above *
5) How many laws were in the Code of Hammurabi?
-----a) 181
-----b) 282
-----c) 288
-----d) 188
6) The Sumerians created a writing system that:
-----a) was picture-like
-----b) was stick-like
-----c) was wedge shaped *
-----d) didn't create a writing system
7) The Sumerians made outstanding achievements in which of the following?
-----a) astronomy
-----b) mathematics
-----c) astronomy and mathematics *
-----d) none of the above
8) The process of mummification was run by which of the following?
-----a) the pharaoh
-----b) slaves
-----c) workers
-----d) priests *
9) The largest of the pyramids were built by which of the following?
-----a) king Khufu *
-----b) Akhenaten
-----c) Ramses II
------d) Alexander the Great
10) Explain the social classes of the Sumerian city-state?
-----Nobles - royal and priestly officials and their families.
-----Commoners - workers of the palace and temple estates and farmers, merchants, fishers, and craftspeople.
-----Slaves - people who belonged to palace officials, who used than mostly in building projects.

2008-12-06T16:48:00.001-08:00

The Ancient Greeks influenced future generations in the area of architect very much. Some of the examples of this are in Ancient Rome and in modern society. The Greeks influenced many cultures and there are many architectual iteams to show it.

The architecture of Ancient Rome were adopted from Greece in the sense of relation between there issues and styles during their era. This can be seen in the Roman tricliniums as a place of dinning manner. The Romans were also similar in the way that they were in debt to their Etruscan neighbors and those who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge esential for future architectural solutions.

The Etruscan People

One way inwhich the Greeks influenced the Romans archatectually is in AD 330. The Roamns moved their capital to a Greek city; Constantinople. (Powell, 49)

As Greek became a main influence in architecture for Rome, the Romans took Greece's ideas and their own and created the arch and the dome. This is used to this day. This is another way inwhich the Greeks influenced Rome and Greece.

During the seventh century B.C.E. the Greeks had spread out from their ealier boundries. In this time period the Romans had begun to move away from the Etruscan rule. The Romans then came in contact with the Greeks; who were to the southeast. After the Second Punic War Rome became increasinly involved with Greece. The Romans started to import marble and show Greek architiecture in their designs; such as the Temple of Portunus. This is how the Greek architecture influenced Rome.

The Greek architecture also influences modern society. One example is in many of the buildings of Washington D.C. They have colums with the destinctive greece design; sucj as the Dorid and Ionic. Even the White House has pilars that can be reconized for there Greek influence. The Greeks also influenced America in the simple sense of building houses. Withut the Greeks our country would look very different.

The Greek architecture was exepted by the Americans bcause they found it easier to build than the Roman style. This shows that because the Greeks made simple architecture future generations took to it and used in in their own creative text.

The Greeks used simpler architectural designs than the Romans. Two of them were the Doric and Ionic. The Doric style is sturdy, and its top is plain. This style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. The Ionic style is thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design. This style was used in eastern Greece and islands. (Pearson, 27)

These are a few of the many civilizations inwhich the Greek architecture influenced. The Greeks influenced many future cultures and changed many lives.

Pearson, Anne. Eyewitness Ancient Greece. DK Publishing, New York, 1992.

Powell, Anton. Atlas for Young People: Ancient Greece. Lionheart Books, Oxford, 1989.

Art of Ancient Greece

2008-11-22T22:25:00.000-08:00

The art of ancient Greece was so amazing that it had an effect throughout the ages. Many of the styles have been copied or reproduced. We often look back on Greece art and use it to produce today's art and architecture.

On of the arts of ancient Greece was architecture. An example is the many temples they built. The temples had a religious purpose as well as political purpose. The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. The ionic style was fancier and was found in eastern Greece and the islands. The most elaborate of the three was the Corinthian style which was often seen on Roman temples.

Another of Greek's art was sculptures. One of the most important sculptures is the Charioteer of Delphi. It represents the balance between stylized geometric representation and idealized realism, thus capturing the moment in history when western civilization progressed forward to define its own foundations that braced it for the future.

Another of the Greek's sculptures is the Kouros. It was a man in a frontal pose with their left leg moved forward, their arms close to their bodies touching the side of their thighs.

Another of the Greek art was painting. They painted detailed pictures on the vases. The vases changed from place to place and from time to time. (Powell,80)

There were four periods of Greek art: the Geometric Period, the Archaic Period, the Classical Period and the Hellenistic Period. During the Geometric Period large-scale ceramic vessels were produced as grave markers. The first vessels had small portions filled with simple stick-figure people, often attending a funeral. The Archaic Period had two major types of art: vase-painting and sculpture. The vase painting was diverted from the Geometric Period and was the primary technique of Archaic vase-painting; It was known as the black-figure vase-painting technique. The statues of this time were made out of bronze and marble. They were often created for temples. The last Greece art period was the Classical Period. . In vase-painting, the technique changes from black-figures to red-figures, where the backgrounds are now painted in black, and the natural color of the red clay now represents flesh tones. Bronze sculpture was another major art form of Classical Greece. During this time another major event was the building of the Parthenon of Athens. These were the periods of Ancient Greece's art. The Hellenistic Period was the time in which Greek art was extended to their lands. The growth of violence was also extended in this time.

During these periods. there were no sharp changes in artistic style. There, however, was smooth changes between the art periods of Ancient Greece.

One effect of the changes in the periods of art was that the ancient greek artist were learning new techniques and addressing new problems. (Garland,199)

The Ancient Greek art gave birth to the western classical art. It also took influence in the Eastern civilizations and the new religion of Orthodox Christianity in the Byzantine era and absorbed Italian and European ideas during the period of Romanticism.

This is the basis for Ancient Greek art. It was very extraordinary and influenced many people and country in the years that followed.

Garland, Robert. Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks, Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. United States, 1998.

Powell, Anton. Ancient Greece, Library of Congress Cataloging Publications, England, 1989.

Alexander the Great's most noteworthy accomplishment

2008-11-10T07:25:00.000-08:00

Alexander the Great's most noteworthy accomplishment in my opinion was the conquering of the countries from Greece to western India. In this he grew a well-built army and by using his great brillance suceeded in many military advances.

Before Alexander the Great became a great conqueror he was a boy. He was son of Phillip 2 and Oympias. His father was king of Macedonia. As a child he was tutored by Aristotle in the subjects of rhetoric, literature, science, and medicine. At the early age of eighteen, Alexander had led a group of cavalry in the battle of Chaeronea against the two Greek cities-states Athens and Thebes. This helped his father win this battle and gain control over much of Greece. This shows that Alexander started his military training and practice at a young age. Phillip 2 decided to have a war with the Persians, but before he had the chance he was assassinated in 336B.

Soon after his father's death Alexander took the throne. Once becoming king he quickly executed his father's killer and all who opposed him. Then Along with the throne Alexander also received a highly trained army who were organized around the units of pikemen armed with sarissas, fourteen foot long spears. Alexander assembled thirty thousand pikemen, infantrymen, and engineers. He also assembled five thousand cavalry to carry out his father's plan to invade Asia Minor.

Alexander the Great continued his military passion for the rest of his life. Soon after he assembled his army he sacked Thebes. Then he started his conquest of Asia; this is when the battle of Granicus took place. In 333B.C. Alexander then defeats Darius at the battle of Issus, and captures the Family of Darius. He later lays siege to Tyre and enters Egypt. This is when he founded Alexandria in Egypt. In the same year he defeats Darius at the battle of Guagamela, takes Mesapotamia, and enters Babylon, Persepolis, and Pasargadae. In the next three years he burned Persepolis and campaigned in Sogdiana and Bactria. He started his plan be entering India and crossing the Indus River. Here he wins the battle of Hydaspes. He then sails down the Indus River to the India Ocean. In 325 B.C. Alexander returns through Baluchistan and suffers great hardships. In the next two years Alexander received a fever and died from it in 232 B.C. He died at the age of 32. This is a short biography of Alexander's military life. This is one of the reasons why Alexander's military life was his most noteworthy of his accomplishments.

Another one of the reasons why his military life was his most noteworthy accomplishment is the fact that his father created the military phalanx. The phalanx was a flexible unit well drilled and able to take on a variety of formations. Alexander extended his creation and used it in his long military life. The phalanx usually consisted of 16 men on a side, 256 men in each unit, always and exclusively Macedonian. They were armed with the sarissa and The real strength of the phalanx was its many formations and maneuvers. While the square was the usual formation, it could form a line or wedge or other shapes. The soldiers were trained to respond to flag and trumpet signals. No army in the Western world in the 4th century was its equal. This shows that Alexander had military brilliance in his blood and had a great military teacher in his childhood.

" Philip II was Alexander's father and Alexander inherited Philip's desire to conquer the Persians and to rule as much of the world as possiable." (Morgan, 34)

Another reason why this was Alexander's most noteworthy accomplishments is for the reason that he was passionate about it. You can see this in his bravery. He was always at the front and always in the thick of battle. He also was wounded in many battles, such as: wounded in neck and head at the Granicus River, the shoulder at Gaza, and had his lung pierced by an arrow in India. This hows that he would not give up and keep fighting. Alexander was also more than once was the first man over the wall at the storming of a city. For this reason he never lost a battle and was thought to be invincible by his men and his enemies. All of these factors created an army that simply could not be stopped. Its accomplishments eclipsed anything that had ever been done, Alexander and his Macedonians entered into legend.

"Alexander had spent almost almost all of his 13-year reign at war. In the process, he destroyed forever the power of the Greek sity-states. However wherever he went on his campaigns through Asia, he created city-states on the Greek model. . . He is said to have founded some 70 cities all together." (Ackroyd ,120)

These are a few of the many reasons why I believe that Alexander the Great's most noteworthy accomlishment is his military strength and many won battles that support it.

Ackroyd, Peter. Ancient Greece. DK Publishing, Inc., New York, 2005.

Morgan, Nicola. People Who Made History in Ancient Greece. Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, New York, 2001.

The Era of Pericles

2008-11-08T16:30:00.000-08:00

The Era of Pericles was very critical for the Greeks. This was because many significant events occurred during this time. Some of them where the Athens became the most splendid of Greek city-states, both politically and culturally with its fleet, making allies with other city-states in the Delian League against the enemy Persia, and with Pericles many great building projects took place.

Pericles was the son of Xanthippus and Agariste. His father was a military leader in the Persian Wars. His father was also victorious at the battle at Mycale. Pericles came from a high class family and received a good education.

During his childhood he was taught by many great teachers. Some of them include: the philosopher Anaxagoras as well as Zenon of Elea. Pericles started as a statesman; and was a supported of democracy. He wanted all the citizens of Athens to take part in politics.

One of the important events Pericles did for Greece was the building of the Acropolis structures. The Acropolis had temples and was also behind the Pnyx, the place where the assembly of the people gathered. The building of these gave many Athenians jobs. This was one of the importance's of Pericles and his era.

The structures on the acropolis is called the Parthenon. When the Persian invaded Athens in 480 BCE, they destroyed its acropolis. Thus Pericles rebuilt a new temple called the Parthenon on the ashes of the old site in 450 BCE. (Ackroyd, 71)

During the Pericles era he also changes many things. One of them were the changing of the Delian League, a collection of city-states bound together with Athens to stand against Persia, into an Athenian Empire. He also collected annual payments from the member states to maintain a fleet of ships, and the money left over was used to improve Athens. These were a few of the many achievements of Pericles during his era.

As leader of the ruling Democratic party, Pericles changed many aspects of Athenian life. He introduced payments for members of the Assembly, so people no longer needed to be rich to play a part in politics. He spread power more widely, although women and slaves still had no power.

(Morgan, 23)

Pericles died from a plauge that swept over Athenens. The historian wrote, "...The plague seized Pericles, not with sharp and violent fits, but with a dull lingering distemper, wasting the strength of his body and undermining his noble soul. "

This is several of the many accomplishments Pericles made during his lifetime. He changed the city-state Athens and the Athenian lives dramatically.

Ackroyd, Peter, Ancient Greece. DK Publishing, Inc., New York, 2005.

Morgan, Nicola, People Who Made History In: Ancient Greece. Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, New York, 2001.

The Athenians and the Spartans

2008-10-30T18:48:00.000-07:00

The Athenians and the Spartans had many similarities and differences. They, however, were both great cities in Ancient Greece, despite their different views.

The first main difference is what each city was based on. Sparta was strong in their military and started training their men at early ages. Athens, however, was very different. It focused on economical stature rather than their military forces. Sparta lied in the Peloponnesus, which lied in southern Greece. The Sparta government consist of two kings and a council of elders who advised the monarchs. In this city-state a spartan prepared for the military at childhood. Another doing of the Spartans was to detect if a new born was healthy enough to live. They either wanted healthy warriors of healthy mother of warriors. This was the main economic structure of Sparta.

These babies that were left out to die were sometimes adopted by other families and brought up to be slaves. (Vernerey, 14)

One way in which Sparta was a military based city-state was how they treated the young boys. When they were only seven they were taken from their families to live in army barracks. Their whole lives were dedicated to learning the arts of war. (Pearson, 56)

Athens, however, started with an aristocratic government. This did not work so they soon changed to a democracy. This change occurred because the people didn't like that the economy was forcing them into debt. This debt often became so bad that the Athenians had to sell their families and themselves into slavery. This was the main economic structure of Athens.

The Athenians and Spartans also had many comparisons. Their population was different; Athens had approximately 140,000, while Sparta had Approximately 100,000. They also had dissimilar government systems. The Athens created a city-state of democracy. Sparta created city-state of oligarchy. Athens had elected officials that included 10 generals and magistrates. The Athenian assembly was open to all citizens. They met on the Hill of the Pnyx at the foot of the Acropolis. At the top of the Spartan government were two kings. These kings had the job of general in command of the army and some religious duties. There were five overseers. Their job was to run the day-to-day operations of Sparta. In the Sparta government there were also a council. It was their job to be judges and proposed laws to the citizens. There were 28 men in the council. Sparta also had an assembly. It consisted of all Spartan males 30 years and over. In both government systems women were not to participate in the political life. Another of the differences were the social classes of these ancient civilizations. In the Athenian social class there were freemen; they were all the male citizens. The freemen were split up into three classes: the aristocrats, small farmers, and the thetes. There were also the Metics and slaves. In the Spartan civilization the social structure was similar. There were also three main classes: the Spartiates, the Perioeci, and the Helots. Both, Athens and Sparta had a military strength. For the Athenians it was their navy. For the Spartans it was their army, they were known as the best and most feared fighters on land. These are some of the comparisons between the Athenians and Spartans.

Even thou Athens and Sparta were very different they both managed to become dominating powers in Ancient Greece.

They also both fought each other.

Athens and Sparta were two rival city-states, but at one time they had been united to protect the Greek states from a series of invasions by Persia. There were three major battles against the Persians: the Athenians stopped the Persian king Darius’s invasion of the Greek mainland at the battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. Under their new king Xerxes, the Persians regrouped and invaded Greece again, occupying more than half the country before being defeated by a coalition of 31 city-states, fighting together as Greeks to defend their homeland. Led by Athens and Sparta, the Greeks defeated the Persians at the battle of Salamis in 480 and at Plataea in 479 BCE.

http://www.indiana.edu/~thtr/2002/lysistrata/war.html

These are some of the comparisons between the Athenians and the Spartans. Despite their differences they were both great city-states that modern day people should look back upon.

Vernerey, Denise, The Ancient Greeks: In the Land of the Gods. The Millbrook Press Inc., Connecticut, 1992.

Pearson, Anne, Ancient Greece. DK Publishing Inc., New York, 2004.

2008-10-25T14:23:00.000-07:00

In Egyptian history the most interesting topic in my opinion is their belief in and preparation for the afterlife. It amazes me what extremes they went to prepare for this.

The Egyptians saw death as a transitional stage in the progress to a better life in the next world. They believed they could only reach their full potential after death. http://www2.sptimes.com/Egypt/EgyptCredit.4.3.html

The Egyptians believed that the soul was made up of three parts: the Ba, Ka, and Akh. Each of these parts were vital to the Egyptian human. Without all of them the soul would die. The Ba represented the person's personality, character, or individuality. It was depicted as a human headed bird. The Ba lived in the tomb, however, it was allowed to leave as it wishes. The Ka was a physical and emotional replica that was thought to live in the humans heart. The Ka was only able to live if the humans body was preserved properly. The Akh was the immorality of the deceased. It was the Akh's job to make the journey to the underworld.

All of these opponents take place in what the Egyptians thought to be the afterlife. The deceased person would be led to the hall of judgment by Anubis. There their heart would be weighed with a feather, representing Ma’at (the Egyptian concept of Right and Order). If the heart weighed less the person would be released to continue on in their afterlife. However, if the heart weighed more it would be eaten by Ammit, a monster that was part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus.Without the heart the person would be wiped out of existence.

As you can see it was important to the Egyptians to have their bodies properly preserved. To see that this was done they had their bodies mummified after death. There were many steps to this process. The first of the steps was to take out all of the organs, except the heart. They were mummified and put in canopic jars that were placed in the tomb at the time of burial. At this time the brain was also taken out. To the Egyptians the brain was useless and was taken out in pieces through the nose. Next, the body would be placed in natron, a salty drying agent, and left to dry out for forty to fifty days. When this time was up all of the bodies liquid would be gone, leaving only the skin, hair, and bones. The body would then be stuffed with resin, sawdust, or linen. This was done so the body would regain its old form. At last the body was wrapped in many layers of linen with numerous good luck charms, or amulets, wrapped between the layers. Between each layer of wrapping a priest would chant spells and prayers. This part of mummification could take up to fifteen days alone. The mummy was then put in his tomb or burial site.

It is incredible that they went through this process every time a person died, if they could afford it. It is so different in contrast to today's burial process. The Egyptians always have a fascinating way of doing things.

On the day of the burial the friends and family would gather at the home of the decedent and start the process of carrying the tomb. Slowly the funeral would make its way to the Nile. There one boat would take the mourners, while the other one would take the mummy, two mourners, and Semi-Priest. At the entrance of the tomb the opening of the mouth ceremony would take place. the mummy was raised to an upright position, the Semi-Priest would then speak the words of ritual while lesser-ranked priests would purify the coffin with water and incense. A adze was raised the the mummies mouth twice, then a forked instrument would be raised to tough the mummies mouth. Once the ceremony outside the tomb was completed the Lector Priests (usually three or four priests) would then recite an Offering Ritual at the false door of the tomb. During this ritual the coffin would be placed inside the tomb. Then the mourners would have a feast in honor of the deceased.

In a tomb erected during the Middle Kingdom, models of Nubian archers were found. They were believed to become life size in the journey to the afterlife. (Day 25)

Nubian Archers

The well known pharaoh, Tutankhamen, was one who went to great lengths to provide a prosperous afterlife. He built an amazing tomb and filled it with extraordinary things he thought would be useful in the afterlife. One of these included two statues that looked as if they were guarding Tutankhamen's tomb. In his tomb there was also much gold. Some of it included gold rings, jewelry, mask, and a coffin. Tutankhamen cared deeply for his afterlife. (MacQuitty)

This is very amazing to me. One man had the power, will, and belief to do such a thing. He spent the majority of his life so he could live well after death. The Egyptians never even questioned why; they just accepted this religion to be true and made great things because of it.

This is why I find the Egyptians belief in and preparation for the afterlife to be the most interesting topic. They believed in something that there's nothing else quite like it. Also they did such extreme lengths to ensure a prosperous afterlife, even if it meant major consequences for others.

MacQuitty, William. Tutankhamen: The Last Journey. Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, 1978.

Day, Nacy. Your Travel Guide to Ancient Egypt. Learner Publishing Group, Minnesota, 2001.

Cleopatra VII

2008-10-04T08:04:00.000-07:00

Cleopatra VII was one of the great women of Ancient Egypt. In Egypt many times women are not recognized, but Cleopatra was an exception. She accomplished many things in her lifetime.

Cleopatra was a very intelligent women and was the first in the royal family to learn Egyptian. (Kemp, 168)

Cleopatra was Macedonian Greek by birth. She was highly educated and spoke seven languages fluently.

(Heart, 64)

Cleopatra first reigned as co-ruler with her father, Ptolomy XII. When Ptolomy died, Cleopatra and younger brother, Ptolomy XIII, joined monarchs. Their first three years of reign were difficult on account of economic difficulties. Some of these were: famine, flood of the Nile, and political conflicts. The relations that Egypt had been completely broke, and by 48 B.C. Ptolomy XIII had ousted Cleopatra from her power. Cleopatra tired to lead a rebellion, but had no choice except to leave.

Cleopatra was strongly linked to Rome. This started when Pompey, Cleopatra's guardian, had been defeated by Caesar at Pharsalia in August of 48 B.C. Pompey fled to Egypt to find refuge from Ptolomy VII. Ptolomy VII, however, killed him the moment he stepped on shore. He did this in hope of creating an alli with Rome. Instead of being filled with joy Caesar was filled with anger. In cause of this Ptolomy drowned in the Nile river. This meant Cleopatra and Ptolomy XVI were the rulers of Egypt.

Soon after Cleopatra became pregnant with Caesar's baby. On June 23, 47B.C. Cleopatra gives birth to a baby boy, Caesarion. Cleopatra then decides that she would go to Rome with Caesar. The Romans were anxious about this, they did not like the eastern way of life, especially aristocracy. Soon there are rumors that Caesar wants to become king. The aristocracy didn't want this to happen so they murdered Caesar. This meant that if the Romans believed Caesar's testament, that Caesarion would become the ruler of Egypt and Rome. Once Caesar was killed there was a fight for power. Caesarion was not considered a successor. The two people that were fighting for power were Anthony and Octavianus.

Cleopatra then returned to Egypt. When her brother died she made Caesarion ruler with her. Then waited for the political struggle to sort out in Rome. Soon Anthony summoned her, she responded eagerly. Cleopatra soon had Anthony in her hand; he even had three men put to death because she felt that they were threatening her throne. Cleopatra later had three children with him. During the Battle of Actinium there was a terrible tragedy. Anthony received a false report that Cleopatra was dead; he stabbed himself.

Cleopatra was hiding in her tomb. Anthony's body was brought to her right before he died. Upon seeing this she held up a serpent and let it put poison into her body. The great Cleopatra was dead.

After Cleopatra's suicide Egypt fell into Rome hands and was no longer an independent empire. (David, 44)

During her life Cleopatra accomplished great things. She was even "queen" of two empires. Yet she took her own life in a tragic death. Cleopatra changed many things in Egypt and was the last person to rule the rich land of Egypt from the house of the Ptolemy, a family that had ruled Egypt for generations.

David, Rosalie, Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. Contemporary Publishing Group, Inc. New York, 1998.

Heart, george, Ancient Egypt. DK Publishing, Inc. New York, 2004.

Kemp, Barry, Think Like an Egyptian - 100 Hieroglyphs. Penguin Group. New York, 2005.

Tutankhamen

2008-09-27T17:53:00.000-07:00

Tutankamen was one of the great Pharoahs of Egypt. During his life he did many things and after his death he was known for great things. Tutankamen was a inormous figure in Egyptain history.

Not much is known about Tutankhamen's life, but his parents are thought to be Akhenaten and Kiya. He was born in 1370 B.C.E. Thutankamen became pharaoh at a very early age and reigned for eight years. His wife, Ankhnesamon, was often thought to be the cause for Akhenaton's reign as pharaoh.

Early in his reign he changed his name from Tutankhaten , living image of Aten, to Tutankhamun. Ankhesenpaaten changed her name to Ankhnesamun. They did this because Tutankhamen wanted to distinguish a difference between him and his father's religion. He did not worship one god like his father and wanted to make it known to all the people of Egypt. Little was recorded of his reign. His name was even omitted from the king lists of Abydos and Karnak.

Tutankhamun died from natural causes, gangrene caused by a broken leg. However, before recent finds Tutankhamun was thought to be murdered. The two prime suspects were Aye who succeeded him as king, and General Horemhab who in turn succeeded Aye to the throne. They both ruled Egypt during Tutankhamen's childhood. Tutankhamen died in 1352 B.C.E.

On November 22, 1922, Carter found Tutankhamen's tomb.

"Encased in a coffin of pure gold, the Egyptian King lay in the blackest darkness, surrounded by unfathomable silence. He was immersed in a small slice of the royal world of the pharaohs: golden chariots, statues of gold and ebony, a fleet of miniature ships to accommodate his trip to the netherworld, his throne of gold, toys from his youth, bottles of perfume, precious jewelry, and more. Every corner, every niche of this time capsule from ancient Egypt was filled with priceless objects." http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/tut.htm

Tutankhamen had three coffins, the inner most one being made of solid gold of an inch thick. The first coffin was made of wood and was 7ft 4in in length. The second coffin had some forms of dampness, it was 6ft 8in in length and in had gold inlaid on it. On his mummy alone there was outrageous amounts of jewelry. They were an outstanding 146 pieces. There were four rooms in his tomb, Annex, Antechamber, Burial Chamber, and Treasury. (Brandt 151)

In the course of his excavations, Carter observed that two robbers had made their entry into the tomb and made an opinion on what they had stole. On the first occasion the entrance passage had been cleared, then filled it. On the second occasion the filling had been there so the robbers had to dig a small tunnel under the ceiling of the passage and against the left wall. When these robberies were discovered officials entered the tomb and made some attempt to restore it, however there work was perfunctory. After they did this they patched the whole made by the robbers and repeated the act of blocking the inner and outer doorways. (Edwards 42)

Tutankhamen was a great pharaoh. Even though he was not known by many people before his amazing tomb was found, he was still an important figure in Ancient Egyptian history.

Brandt, Anthony, The Tomb of Tutankhamen - Howard Carter. National Geographic Society, London, 1873.

Edwards, I.E.S., The Treasures of Tutankhamun.The Viking Press Inc., New York, 1972.

Ramses II

2008-09-19T15:22:00.000-07:00

Egypt went threw many great pharaohs, however one of the greatest was Ramses II. He was thought to be so great that he was often called "Ramses the Great". He expanded Egypt a great deal and built many amazing structures. He had an interesting life and I believe it's worth telling.

Ramses II was the son of Seti I and Queen Tuya. When he was younger he worked as co-ruler beside his father. This enabled him to have experience before he excepted the title of pharaoh. Soon after his father died, in 1290 B.C., Ramses II became pharaoh. He then ruled as the third king of the 19th dynasty. His mother, Tuya went down from the title of Queen to the King;s mother, which acted as his adviser. His first act was to wage war on Syrai, later known as the Battle of Kadesh. This battle would indicate who had control over Syria. Ramses II lead his army of 20,000 to war, all while trying to maintain his empire against the Hittites. In spite of this his tactics were not well planned, therefore he was forced to retreat. This did not slow him down thou, he moved on and started building his empire up through architecture.

After this first battle all stood at a stand still for some time, but there was then a treaty signed that divided the land and stated that Ramses II would marry the daughter of the Hittites king. Later in his reign Ramses II attacked many of his enemies such as the Libyans and the Nubians and also attacked Syria about half a dozen times.

Ramses II had eight royal wives. These eight wives were Nefertari, Istnofret, Bint-Anath, Meryetamun, Nebettawy, Henutmire, Maathorneferure, Name Unknown. He had many other wives, but these were his eight principle wives. Nefertari, however, was his first and favorite wife.

Ramses II accomplished many things in his reign. One of his major ones was he became one of the famous Egyptian pharaohs known for his military strength. He gained back much of the territory that was lost during another pharaohs reign. Another of Ramses II's great accomplishments is he built more monuments than any of the other ancient Egyptian pharaohs. The Ramses II monument at Abu Simbel is the most famous of all. He did this because of his great love for architecture. These are a few of Ramses II's great accomplishments during his reign.

Ramses II lived to be an astonishing ninety-two. Outgrowing some of his children, Ramses II lived almost double the live expectancy back then. Some of the medical problems that studies have found were problems with his heart and hip, and he had a broken nose. This was unusual for a pharaoh to have. Even thou he lived a extremely long life, all must die.

Ramses II's tomb is located in the Valley of the Kings, and remains empty. After being looted by tomb robbers for years, the tomb is now being restored. Even thou the tomb is empty the mummy of Ramses II has been found, and is thought to be the one of the best preserved mummies ever discovered. (Valikovsky 203)

After Ramses II's death there was many confusion about who would be the next Pharaoh, however, with so many sons there was much fighting. For a few years they fought for the throne. Most of their reigns were brief and did not do much for Egypt. When Ramses II died Egypt entered a decline, that it would never fulling recover from. (Lassieur 75)

Ramses II lived a long life and accomplished many things during his reign. He even brought Egypt to one of its highest points in history. To this day Ramses II is remembered as a great man who changed Egypt forever.

Lassieur, Allison. The Ancient Egyptians, Lucent Books, Inc.; San Diego, 2001.

Velikovsky, Immanuel. Ramses II and His Time, Doubleday & Company, Inc.; New York, 1978.

The Reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten

2008-09-08T17:37:00.000-07:00

The Egyptians used a system of government that was controled by a person called pharaoh. The pharaoh had much power for the Egyptian believed that they were a god on earth. One of these powerful pharaohs is Akhenaten. He ruled and was looked upon as a very important person in life according to the Egyptians. During his reign many changes occured, even his family changed significantly.

He ruled Ancient Egypt for 17 long years; 1352- 1336 BCE. (Romer 26)

Early in Akhenaten reign he changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten, meaning"the Servant of Aten". Towards the beginning he also introduced a monotheistic worship of Aten, the Sun God. He placed temples for Aten by other gods temples at first, but soon he closed all other temples and took their revenues. During this religion revolution he placed himself as the intermediary between his people and Aten. This made him a god-king, and the first king to be called Pharaoh. Akhenaten changed Egypt's religion dramatically throughout his reign.

~ Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and their childeren worshiping Aten . ~

Akhenaten and Nefertiti moved out of Thebes to a new capitol called Akhetaton in honor of Aten. They built many extraordinary buildings and conducted remarkable ceremonies in the temples and palaces. Soon the capital Akhetaton gained much power and many things relied on it.

In the course of his reign the art was also changed with great impact. The main motivation why it changed was to accompany the Pharaoh's new religion. One of the ways art was changed during this time was a new exaggerated style. This featured an elongated face, slit like eyes and a pendant chin. This is one of the changes that happened during Akhenaten's reign.

"The period of the rule of King Akhenaten and his queen Nefertiti during the Fourteenth Century BCE is known as today the Armana Phase of the Egyptian ruling dynasties, resulting from the King's construction of a new capital city he called Akhetaten (Horizon of the Aten) at an archeological site contemporarily known as Armana."

http://bierwirthtree.tripod.com/webnotes/egyptian.html

Akhenaten was married to Nefertiti at the beginning of his reign. They had six known daughters: Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten, Neferneferuaten tasherit, Neferneferuaten, and Setepenre. Ankhesenpaaten married Tutankhamun soon after her father died. It is said that he was married to a Women named Kiya, in his later reign.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Kiya~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

"The Egyptian did not make a tragic or heroic event of the death of royalty: rather they hushed it up as the triumph of evil over righteousness. . . We have no offical account of Akhenaten's end, but in his case it would have been only fitting if his apotheosis had been into the falcon of Re-Herakhte." (Aldred 290)

Akhenaten ruled Egypt for many year. During this time he influenced the Egypt and its people greatly. Even though he was not looked on as a heroic figure when he died, in my opinion he was still a great pharaoh that changed Egypt forever.

Romer, John,Valley of the Kings, The Orion Publishing Group; London, 1981.

Alreed, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt, Thames and Hudson Inc.; Germany, 1991.

The Pyramids of Giza

2008-08-30T11:02:00.000-07:00

The Ancient Egyptians had a very different view of life in comparison to the present day period. To them life on earth was vastly shorter than life after death. For that reason they went to extreme lengths to ensure a prosperous afterlife. One example of this idea is the remarkable pyramids of Giza. They demonstrated how far these individual Egyptians went for their afterlife.

The pyramids of Giza were constructed during the 4th dynasty, or 2613-2498 B.C. The pharaohs that built them were Cheops (or Khufu), Chephren (or Khafre), and Mycerinus (or Menkaure). Khufu built the largest of the three pyramids. It originally stood at 146.6 meters tall and its base was 230.3 meters around. It sides were covered in fine white polished limestone. The Pyramid of Khafre is often thought to be larger than the pyramid of his father, Khufu, but it is not. It originally only stood at 143.5 meters compared to 146.6 meters.The smallest of the three pyramids is the Pyramid of Menkaure, it originally stood at 66 meters. There are also three smaller pyramids that lay beside the pyramid of Khufu. They were created for the three wives of Khufu. (Hart 20)

Each of these pharaohs obviously cared a great deal about their afterlife and recognition of the ages to come. I believe that they succeeded one of these; no person can see a picture of these extraordinary pyramids and not recognize the greatness of the one who built it.

Monumental tombs were built to house the royal mummies and everything they would need for life in the hereafter - clothes, jewelry, chairs, beds, dishes, even food. (Giblin 12)

The Pyramids of Giza are said to be built by the labor of 100,000 men. This is often hard to believe, but there are various archaeological facts that support this idea. One of them is they have found the camps of the men that built the pyramids. These men shaped the blocks for the pyramid with copper tools. Then using wooden sleds dragged the blocks manually or with oxen along roads to the pyramids construction site. Then they were raised on ramps as the pyramid became larger. When the pyramid was complete these ramps would be disassembled. This is how the pyramids of Giza were built.

Many believe that the Great Pyramid was built by slaves, however 100,000 people worked on it for three months; when the Nile flooded. The flooding made it impossible for farming, thus the building of the pyramid gave jobs to the unemployed.

The Pyramids of Giza have many remarkable features and history, above are a few of the many. This shows how amazing the Pyramids of Giza are.

Giblin, James Cross. Secrets of the Sphinx, Scholastic Press; New York, 2004.

Hart, George. Eyewitness Ancient Egypt, DK Publishing, Inc.; New York, 2004.