Jihad

There are many different views on the idea of Jihad. However, the main definition for Jihad is the Arabic word for what can be translated as a struggle or effort to fight. In the West, the word is generally understood to mean holy war. In the Quran jihad is referred to as a military struggle on behalf of Islam. But the Quran also refers to jihad as an spiritual struggle toward self-improvement and moral cleansing. It is said that the prophet Muhammad thought of this spiritual version of holy war to be of far more importance than the physical version. To the Muslims the idea of jihad is considered to be part of every Muslim's duty; to improve society, and improving oneself before the Day of Judgement. This would be considered verbal jihad. In other words it means to strive for justice through words and non-violent actions. Muhammad encouraged Muslims to demand justice in the name of Allah.





"Personal jihad is the most important form. This type of jihad, called the Jihadun-Nafs, is the intimate struggle to purify one's soul of evil influences -- both subtle and overt. It is the struggle to cleanse one's spirit of sin."

Another view on jihad is physical Jihad. This relates to the use of physical force in defense of Muslims against oppression and transgression by the enemies of Allah. Allah commands that Muslims lead peaceful lives and not transgress against anyone.

Jihad is sometimes considered as the Sixth Pillar of Islam. The importance of jihad is roted in the Quran's command to struggle in the path of God and through the Prophet Muhammad and is early Companions. (Book Internet)


This is a few of the many views of the idea of jihad. However, the effect of having many different views of jihad is a vicious clash between followers of different religions, each of whom believes that God is on their side and that the other side is is of Satan. This is far from right; God can not be on all sides, therefore one side must be wrong. There is an absolute truth in the universe; meaning that both sides can not be right.

Even though jihad was a main idea in Islamic history, in recent years it has spread into other religions and groups. Jihad is a very broad word. There are many different views of this word and many people look at it differently. In conclusion, Jihad is a very important concept and is still effecting the modern day world.

St. Augustine: Just War

St. Augustine was born in Tagaste, Numidia in North Africa. His mother was a Christian, but his father remained a pagan until late in life. After a rather unremarkable childhood, Augustine drifted through several philosophical systems before converting to Christianity at the age of thirty-one. At the age of nineteen, Augustine read Cicero's Hortensius, an experience that led him into the fascination with philosophical questions and methods that would remain with him throughout his life. After a few years as a Manichean, he became attracted to the more skeptical positions of the Academic philosophers. Although tempted in the direction of Christianity upon his arrival at Milan in 383, he turned first to neoplatonism. During this time, Augustine became a father to the child of a mistress.

Augustine had studied at Carthage, he used this fact to gain employment in teaching in Carthage and then in Rome and Milan. Here he met Ambrose who is credited for Augustine's conversion and who baptized Augustine in 387. Returning to his homeland soon after his conversion, he was ordained a presbyter in 391, taking the position as bishop of Hippo in 396, a position which he held until his death.


St. Augustine affirms that the world was created by God from nothing, through a free act of His will. Augustine also affirms that the absolute unity and the spirituality of the human soul. In regard to the nature of the soul he affirms that the soul is simple and immortal. The soul has three functions: being, understanding, and loving. Corresponding to three faculties: intellectual memory, intelligence, and will. The primary among these three faculties is the will. The will of man is free. Three kinds of evil can be distinguished: metaphysical, physical, and moral.. Metaphysical evil is the lack of a perfection.Under this aspect, all creatures are evil because they fall short of full perfection, which is God alone. Physical evil consists in the privation of a perfection due to nature. The only true evil is moral evil; sin. Sin is an action contrary to the will of God. The cause of moral evil is not God, who is good, nor is it matter for matter is a creature of God and therefore is good. Neither is the will as a faculty of the soul evil, for it too has been created by God. The cause of moral evil the free will, by which man is able to turn from the right order, to oppose himself to the will of God. Sin, from the very fact it is decadence of being, carries in itself its own punishment. By sinning man injures himself in his being, for he falls from what he was created to be. As a result of this fall there exist the sufferings which he must bear.

"Traditionally Augustine is regarded as the father of what has developed as the Western theory of just war." (Internet Book)

"Fifth-century philosopher St. Augustine of Hippo sought to provide an answer to the question. His approach formed the foundation of the ‘just war’ tradition, which has had enormous influence upon moral-philosophical thought on military issues in the West ever since. This major new study identifies Augustine’s fundamental premises, reconstructs his just-war theory, and critically evaluates the reconstructed theory in light of his historical context and neo-Platonic and Christian philosophical considerations." (Internet Book)

The main point of the Just War Theory is that while war may be awful, it is nevertheless sometimes a necessary aspect of politics.


Augustine believed that, given Jesus Christ's call for his followers to be peacemakers, as stated in Matthew 5:9, using no violence, war is a lamentable sin taking place in the earthly world, and that it can never establish eternal peace. However, he also believed from a practical point of view that if it is necessary to defend the innocent against evil, violence may be used. This constituted his theory of "just war." He concluded that there must be at least two requirements for just war: proper cause and proper authority. The first requirement means that wars be waged only for the purpose of establishing peace. The second requirement is that wars be waged by governing authorities, because they are established by God in the natural world for a providential reason.

Most Important Thing I Learned This Year

Throughout the year I have learned many important things; in which have changed how I view many topics in the world. However, the most important thing I learned this year is the relationship between Christianity and the Roman Empire.

One of the major relationships between Christianity and the Roman empire is how much they innfluenced each other. Rome started out with a polytheistic religion. The Romans believed that with the right ritutual they would have a right relationship with the gods. Even tough this was the state religion, they were still very tolerant of other religions in the empire.

Christianity was very different from the Roman state religion. The Christian relgion started with a man called Jesus of Nazareth. In about 26 A.D. he bagan to preach, telling prople that he was the son of God. He told the Romans that what was important was not strict law, but rather the inner change of the soul. Jesus taught that there was one God and that his commandment was: to love God and one another. Around 29 A.D. he was cruxified by the Roman procurator, Pontius.

Christianity was greatly influenced in Rome by the Apostles Paul and Peter. Paul of Tarus reached out to non-Jews. The Bible includes an epistle written by the Apostle Paul to the Christians in Rome. The book of Acts records that Paul, though Jewish, was a Roman citizen by birth. When the Jews accused Paul of bringing Gentiles into their synagogue, Paul made an appeal for Caesar to hear his case. He is thought to be beheaded under the rule of Nero. The Apostle Peter is known to have established his headquarters in the city, following his thirty-year ministry in the East. The Apostle Peter was martyred in Rome.

Paul Preaching in Rome

The Roman tolerence towards Christians began to change. They tolerated only religions that did not threatened public order and public morals. Many Romans began to veiew Christians as a rebelious people, because they would not worship the empire's gods or emperor. As an effect of this, the Christians were looked upon as treasonist, and were killed for it. If they were caught, they faced death for failing to worship the emperor. It was not uncommon for emperors to turn the people against the Christians when Rome was faced with difficulties in time. Such as in AD 64, part of Rome was burned down. The Emperor Nero blamed the Christians and the people turned on them. Arrests and executions followed. As a result of these dangers, Christains often had to meet in private.

However, as new emperors came to rule, these extremes went away. Christianity survived all of these difficulties; and is still a thriving religion today. The numbers of Christians in the city grew, particularly as the power and integrity of the empire decayed and the people of Rome lost faith in the old gods. A major turning point for the Christian faith was in 310 A.D. In this year, General Constantine was about to wage battle against general Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. He was miracusly inspired to take the cross as his standard. Sure enough the following day he won the battle and became sole emperor. He pronounced the religion of state to be Christianity and donated various properties to the Christians so that they might carry on their faith. After this point in time, Christianity grew to new lengths. In 378 to 395 a new emperor, Theosoius the Great, made Christinaity the offical religion of Rome. Romans went from tolerating Christianity, to persecuting all Christians that pushed against the state, to being the state religion. Christiantiy had triumphed.

General Constantine

Throughout all of this, it showed me that God works in amazing ways and that the true religion will always overcome and surpress all of the other false lies out in the world. It also showed me that I should be very thankful that I life in a country where I can practice my faith. It also makes me question what I would do if I was put in the situation of the Romans that were killed for their faith.

This is the most important thing I learned this year.

The Fall of the Roman Civilization

The fall in the Roman civilization was a dramatic event in the history of the world. There are many opinions on why the Roman civilization did fall. One of the popular explanation was the split into an eastern and western empire governed by separate emperors. Some of the other explanations are: the plagues, the use of lead pipes, the Roman army, and liberal thinking emperors.

The Roman Empire was once one empire, but split. The eastern half became the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Constantinople. While the western half remained centered in Italy. The eastern Roman empire was the stronger of the two and had a trading system with Asia, Africa, and Europe. This led to a more wealthier civilization. The eastern cities were also better fortified and had the Black Sea as a natural barrier against invaders. The western empire was much weaker and did not have the trading abilities that the eastern empire had. These cities were often exposed to attackers along the northern boarder.

Another reason in which why the Roman civilization fell is because of the plagues and diseases that swept the empire. The plagues reduced the population, and affected the fertility of the survivors greatly. The diseases made the Roman people weary. These along with accidents of the time, such as lead pipes, hurt the population of the Roman civilization. The lead pipes poisoned the people, lowering their birth-rate and intelligence level.

Another major cause for the Roman civilization to collapse is because of the fall in the Roman military. The military got out of hand due to the lack of discipline. As the military started to gain power, loyal Roman soldier were scarce. These powerful generals tended to use the power of their armies to further their own political ambitions. At a point in time they gained so much power that at their word emperors would be assassinated, even though it was mainly for their own profit. In the end, the Roman empire could not produce enough to support and maintain the military capability necessary to defend a vast empire in a hostile environment. (Hadas 143)

Another reason in which why the Roman civilization collapsed is because of the liberal thinking emperors. They attempted to spend too much on the poor in their efforts to lift them up. As a result of this it drained the financial resources of the Empire.

As the eastern civilization weakened away, the western empire fell in A.D. 476, when last emperor was removed. After the fall of the Roman civilization the roads and public structure fell, trade declined, and Germanic powers claimed parts of Rome. (Tainter 143)

Through all of these events and actions the Roman civilization eventually fell. However, it showed the people of today an important idea; the decline and fall of empires is a repeating pattern of world history. Even large empires eventually break into smaller pieces.

Hadas, Moses, et al. Imperial Rome. Great Ages of man: A History of the World’s Cultures. New York: Time-Life Books. 1965.

Tainter, Joseph A. The Collapse of Complex Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988.

Pompeii and the Eruption of Vesuvius

In 79 A.D the great volcano of Mount Vesuvius exploded killing many of the inhabitants of the near by city Pompeii. This was a very extraordinary event in the history of the Roman Empire.

The city of Pompeii was an ancient city located in southern Italy southeast of Naples. It was founded in the sixth or early fifth century B.C., and was a Roman colony by 80 B.C. It became a prosperous port and resort with many noted villas, temples, theaters, and baths. The city was under the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. It was a favorite resort for wealthy Romans, reaching a population of about 20,000 at the beginning of the Christian era. It was also a place of considerable trade and was the port town of Nola and other inland cities of the fertile valley of the Sarnies.

Pompeii was damaged by and earthquake in 63 A.D., but the city would encounter much more than this in its coming years.

On August 24, 79 A.D. Mount Vesuvius blew up and tons of molten ash, pumice and sulfuric gas miles into the atmosphere. The poisonous vapors and molten debris suffocated the inhabitants of Pompeii and the near by cities of Herculaneum and Stabiae. Tons of falling debris filled the streets until nothing remained to be seen of the once thriving communities. The cities remained buried and undiscovered for almost 1700 years until excavation began in 1748.

In a second letter to Tacitus, Pliny describes what happened to him and to his mother during the second day of the disaster: "Ashes were already falling, not as yet very thickly. I looked round: a dense black cloud was coming up behind us, spreading over the earth like a flood.'Let us leave the road while we can still see,'I said,'or we shall be knocked down and trampled underfoot in the dark by the crowd behind.'We had scarcely sat down to rest when darkness fell, not the dark of a moonless or cloudy night, but as if the lamp had been put out in a closed room.
You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness for evermore.

There were people, too, who added to the real perils by inventing fictitious dangers: some reported that part of Misenum had collapsed or another part was on fire, and though their tales were false they found others to believe them. A gleam of light returned, but we took this to be a warning of the approaching flames rather than daylight. However, the flames remained some distance off; then darkness came on once more and ashes began to fall again, this time in heavy showers. We rose from time to time and shook them off, otherwise we should have been buried and crushed beneath their weight. I could boast that not a groan or cry of fear escaped me in these perils, but I admit that I derived some poor consolation in my mortal lot from the belief that the whole world was dying with me and I with it."

Archaeologists began excavating Pompeii during the 18th century. Here they found the remains of people, ancient buildings, and other artifacts preserved amid the volcanic debris. Among the structures uncovered was The Forum of Pompeii. (McIntosh 29)

The ash mixed with rain, settled around the volcano’s victims, creating molds. These molds remained intact long after the bodies had decayed. Archaeologists pour liquid plaster into the forms, preserving the exact shapes of the bodies at the moment of death. (Place, 28)

Since that fateful day there have been subsequent eruptions that have reshaped the mountain. They occurred about every 100 years until 1037. On the 16th December 1631, a major eruption destroyed all the towns that had grown at the foot of the mountain. Over the next 300 years there were 23 eruptions of various degrees. The last known eruption was in 1944 when the Allied forces were attacking Italy. The volcano bubbles and smokes yet today. With modern technology, the people living in the area should be given adequate warning prior to any future eruption. Property will be damaged but lives can be saved.




Place, Robin. Bodies From the Past. Thomson Learning, New York, 1995.

McIntosh, Jane. Archeology. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1994.

The Stoic Movement of Ancient Rome

In Ancient Rome they believed in the philosophy of Stoicism. They were called the stoics, because the school's founder, Zeno of Cyprus met his students at the Stoa Poikile on the north side of the market place in Athens.Through rational living and self-control, Zeno and his followers sought to find the source of virtue, and thus happiness, within themselves rather than in external things. The stoics believed that the world is a changing conflagration, or fire, which is limited and ordered by a creative force called Logos, or God. Virtue consists of a man's consciously governing the fires of his action, or desires, by reason. The virtuous man is self-sufficient and undisturbed, this meaning that they were not a slave of circumstances or emotions. Like Socrates, he faces events with calmness, living an honest and rational life. Stoics believed in the kinship and equality of all men, on the grounds that every person possesses a spark of the divine fire, or God. They saw the highest good in the contemplation of God and the universe. The history of Stoicism is divided into three periods called the Old Stoa (300 B.C.-129 B.C.), the Middle Stoa (129 B.C.-30 B.C.), and the Late Stoa (30 B.C.-200 A.D.). During the Late Stoa, the Stoic school shifted from Athens to Rome, where Stoicism stressed the importance of citizenship and honor. Roman Stoics often were advisers to Roman emperors. Stoicism even influenced the Christians in ancient Rome.

Stoicism was the most influential philosophy in the Roman Empire during the period preceding the rise of Christianity. Marcus Aurelius was among the most famous Stoics of the Roman era, as well as one of the fiercest persecutors of the Roman Christians during his reign as emperor. The Roman stoics influenced Christians then and changed Christianity that is still studied today.

Zeno of Cyprus

Stoicism believed that all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. They held that differences such as rank and wealth are of no importance in social relationships. Thus, before Christianity, Stoics recognized and advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. (Durant 975)

The primary duty one owes is to the state, according to Stoicism. Since God is using the Roman state to further law and civilization, performing one's duty is a religious act. The principal being to which one owes respect is, of course, God; since God is working out his will in history by using the Roman state and Roman officials , the respect one shows for Roman authorities is also a respect shown for God. (Durant 301)

Stoicism was in Rome during the Hellenistic Era. After the death of Zeno of Citium, the Stoic school was headed by Cleanthes and Chrysippus, and its teachings were carried to Rome in 155 by Diogenes of Babylon. Stoic ideas appear in the greatest work of Roman literature, and later the philosophy was adopted by Seneca, Lucan, a poet and associate of the Emperor Nero, Epictetus, and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Stoicism is perhaps the most significant philosophical school in the Roman Empire, and much of our contemporary views and popular mythologies about Romans are derived from Stoic principles.

In 86, the Roman's excepted the Greek philosophy, stoicism, with open arms. Many Roman politicians at least adopted the high moral tone of Stoicism according to which only virtue is a genuine good, while money, health and even life itself are simply preferred indifferents. Many famous figures in Ancient Rome were either believed in stoicism or had a person who influenced them that did. Such as Cato the Younger and Scipio Aemilianus. Pompey thought it sufficiently important to look in on the Stoic philosopher Panaetius of Rhodes in his comings and goings. Octavian had a Stoic tutor. Among the Roman emperors, the Stoic philosopher Seneca was the advisor of Nero.

The Greeks followed stoicism before the Romans, but he Romans were a far more practical people than the Greeks, and more skilled at governing. Stoicism became the strongest force in Roman life. The two best known Roman Stoic writers were Epictetus, a slave, and Marcus Aurelius, an Emperor. Perhaps we could best get a feel for their attitudes by reading their words directly for once truth becomes of secondary importance to living then it is feelings and not logical order which tell us the real meaning of a culture.

Ancient Rome was a strong believer in Stoicism and this belief was passed on to the Christians. This shows that Stoicism was a great philiosophy and that it influenced the Christian religion to this day.

Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. Simon and Schuster, Inc., New York, 1950.

Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. Simon and Schuster, Inc., New York, 1950.

The Relation Between the Growth of Christianity and the Roman Empire

The popular religion, known as Christianity, began its main growth during the Roman Empire. Christianity was one of the many different religions competing for the attention of people of the Roman Empire during the first three centuries CE.The growth that took place during this time was extraordinary.

One of the reasons for this growth, of the Christian religion was due to the popularity of different facets of the religion. These included its universal acceptance of all people regardless of their pasts, the strong sense of community within its congregations, its duty to care for the weak, sick and needy. The Roman people greatly liked these ideas. Combined with the great demographic shifts that were occurring in the Roman Empire, Christianity went through a time of great development and expansion. With the Roman Empire new there were many immigrants that wanted to have acceptance into the Roman society, to find a sense of belonging. Since Christianity accepted all, these immigrant would be given acceptance into a close-knit community.

Another way in which Christianity was spread throughout the Roman Empire was while the empire was newly established the Romans were tolerant of different religious customs. This gave Christians the opportunity to teach and spread their message to the Roman people. One man who spread the Christian religion throughout Rome was St. Paul who founded Christian churches in Asia Minor and Greece. Eventually, he took his teachings to Rome itself. In Rome there was a road system throughout all of the empire. St. Paul walked on these very roads to spread the message of Christ. By just the fourth century Christianity was known at the state religion within the Roman Empire.

Another man who taught the Christian message in Rome was Peter. The Apostle Peter is known to have established his headquarters in the city, following his thirty-year ministry in the East. The Apostle Peter was martyred in Rome.

Within the Roman Empire there were many ways to get from one part of the region to the other. This helped Christianity to have the ability to spread. Roads led from Rome to every part of its dominion. Travel was made, if not easy, at least not impossible. This ease of communication made it possible for disciples to spread the Christian message all over the ancient world. Another example of a human who used this is St. Paul; as mentioned previously. If the Roman Empire had not existed, missionaries would have found it extremely difficult to cross the borders of very different and often warring nations without finding themselves accused and punished as an enemy, before they had a chance to spread the good news.

Another reason in which the Christian message was spread throughout Rome, was that it was a very grand empire with many types of people with in it. Also the cruelty of the Roman empires grew the faith of those already converted and converted yet more. And lastly, the oppressed nature of the subjects of the Roman Empire made the message of Christ welcome to these lower classes. The message was for the rich and the poor. (Ackroyed 127)

The first converts were usually the poor and slaves for they had a great deal to gain from the Christians. If they were caught, they faced death for failing to worship the emperor. It was not uncommon for emperors to turn Rome's people against the Christian religion when Rome was faced with difficulties. (Bass 41)

This is how Christianity was spread throughout Rome. The Roman Empire helped the growth of the Christian religion greatly.

Ackroyd, Pete. Ancient Rome. DK Publishing, Inc., New York, 2005.

Bass, Newton T. Timelines of History: Volume II. Grolier, Scholastic Library Publishing, Connecticut, 2005.