The Athenians and the Spartans

The Athenians and the Spartans had many similarities and differences. They, however, were both great cities in Ancient Greece, despite their different views.

The first main difference is what each city was based on. Sparta was strong in their military and started training their men at early ages. Athens, however, was very different. It focused on economical stature rather than their military forces. Sparta lied in the Peloponnesus, which lied in southern Greece. The Sparta government consist of two kings and a council of elders who advised the monarchs. In this city-state a spartan prepared for the military at childhood. Another doing of the Spartans was to detect if a new born was healthy enough to live. They either wanted healthy warriors of healthy mother of warriors. This was the main economic structure of Sparta.

These babies that were left out to die were sometimes adopted by other families and brought up to be slaves. (Vernerey, 14)

One way in which Sparta was a military based city-state was how they treated the young boys. When they were only seven they were taken from their families to live in army barracks. Their whole lives were dedicated to learning the arts of war. (Pearson, 56)

Athens, however, started with an aristocratic government. This did not work so they soon changed to a democracy. This change occurred because the people didn't like that the economy was forcing them into debt. This debt often became so bad that the Athenians had to sell their families and themselves into slavery. This was the main economic structure of Athens.

The Athenians and Spartans also had many comparisons. Their population was different; Athens had approximately 140,000, while Sparta had Approximately 100,000. They also had dissimilar government systems. The Athens created a city-state of democracy. Sparta created city-state of oligarchy. Athens had elected officials that included 10 generals and magistrates. The Athenian assembly was open to all citizens. They met on the Hill of the Pnyx at the foot of the Acropolis. At the top of the Spartan government were two kings. These kings had the job of general in command of the army and some religious duties. There were five overseers. Their job was to run the day-to-day operations of Sparta. In the Sparta government there were also a council. It was their job to be judges and proposed laws to the citizens. There were 28 men in the council. Sparta also had an assembly. It consisted of all Spartan males 30 years and over. In both government systems women were not to participate in the political life. Another of the differences were the social classes of these ancient civilizations. In the Athenian social class there were freemen; they were all the male citizens. The freemen were split up into three classes: the aristocrats, small farmers, and the thetes. There were also the Metics and slaves. In the Spartan civilization the social structure was similar. There were also three main classes: the Spartiates, the Perioeci, and the Helots. Both, Athens and Sparta had a military strength. For the Athenians it was their navy. For the Spartans it was their army, they were known as the best and most feared fighters on land. These are some of the comparisons between the Athenians and Spartans.

Even thou Athens and Sparta were very different they both managed to become dominating powers in Ancient Greece.

They also both fought each other.

Athens and Sparta were two rival city-states, but at one time they had been united to protect the Greek states from a series of invasions by Persia. There were three major battles against the Persians: the Athenians stopped the Persian king Darius’s invasion of the Greek mainland at the battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. Under their new king Xerxes, the Persians regrouped and invaded Greece again, occupying more than half the country before being defeated by a coalition of 31 city-states, fighting together as Greeks to defend their homeland. Led by Athens and Sparta, the Greeks defeated the Persians at the battle of Salamis in 480 and at Plataea in 479 BCE.

http://www.indiana.edu/~thtr/2002/lysistrata/war.html

These are some of the comparisons between the Athenians and the Spartans. Despite their differences they were both great city-states that modern day people should look back upon.

Vernerey, Denise, The Ancient Greeks: In the Land of the Gods. The Millbrook Press Inc., Connecticut, 1992.

Pearson, Anne, Ancient Greece. DK Publishing Inc., New York, 2004.

In Egyptian history the most interesting topic in my opinion is their belief in and preparation for the afterlife. It amazes me what extremes they went to prepare for this.

The Egyptians saw death as a transitional stage in the progress to a better life in the next world. They believed they could only reach their full potential after death. http://www2.sptimes.com/Egypt/EgyptCredit.4.3.html

The Egyptians believed that the soul was made up of three parts: the Ba, Ka, and Akh. Each of these parts were vital to the Egyptian human. Without all of them the soul would die. The Ba represented the person's personality, character, or individuality. It was depicted as a human headed bird. The Ba lived in the tomb, however, it was allowed to leave as it wishes. The Ka was a physical and emotional replica that was thought to live in the humans heart. The Ka was only able to live if the humans body was preserved properly. The Akh was the immorality of the deceased. It was the Akh's job to make the journey to the underworld.

Ba

All of these opponents take place in what the Egyptians thought to be the afterlife. The deceased person would be led to the hall of judgment by Anubis. There their heart would be weighed with a feather, representing Ma’at (the Egyptian concept of Right and Order). If the heart weighed less the person would be released to continue on in their afterlife. However, if the heart weighed more it would be eaten by Ammit, a monster that was part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus.Without the heart the person would be wiped out of existence.

As you can see it was important to the Egyptians to have their bodies properly preserved. To see that this was done they had their bodies mummified after death. There were many steps to this process. The first of the steps was to take out all of the organs, except the heart. They were mummified and put in canopic jars that were placed in the tomb at the time of burial. At this time the brain was also taken out. To the Egyptians the brain was useless and was taken out in pieces through the nose. Next, the body would be placed in natron, a salty drying agent, and left to dry out for forty to fifty days. When this time was up all of the bodies liquid would be gone, leaving only the skin, hair, and bones. The body would then be stuffed with resin, sawdust, or linen. This was done so the body would regain its old form. At last the body was wrapped in many layers of linen with numerous good luck charms, or amulets, wrapped between the layers. Between each layer of wrapping a priest would chant spells and prayers. This part of mummification could take up to fifteen days alone. The mummy was then put in his tomb or burial site.

It is incredible that they went through this process every time a person died, if they could afford it. It is so different in contrast to today's burial process. The Egyptians always have a fascinating way of doing things.

On the day of the burial the friends and family would gather at the home of the decedent and start the process of carrying the tomb. Slowly the funeral would make its way to the Nile. There one boat would take the mourners, while the other one would take the mummy, two mourners, and Semi-Priest. At the entrance of the tomb the opening of the mouth ceremony would take place. the mummy was raised to an upright position, the Semi-Priest would then speak the words of ritual while lesser-ranked priests would purify the coffin with water and incense. A adze was raised the the mummies mouth twice, then a forked instrument would be raised to tough the mummies mouth. Once the ceremony outside the tomb was completed the Lector Priests (usually three or four priests) would then recite an Offering Ritual at the false door of the tomb. During this ritual the coffin would be placed inside the tomb. Then the mourners would have a feast in honor of the deceased.

In a tomb erected during the Middle Kingdom, models of Nubian archers were found. They were believed to become life size in the journey to the afterlife. (Day 25)

Nubian Archers

The well known pharaoh, Tutankhamen, was one who went to great lengths to provide a prosperous afterlife. He built an amazing tomb and filled it with extraordinary things he thought would be useful in the afterlife. One of these included two statues that looked as if they were guarding Tutankhamen's tomb. In his tomb there was also much gold. Some of it included gold rings, jewelry, mask, and a coffin. Tutankhamen cared deeply for his afterlife. (MacQuitty)












This is very amazing to me. One man had the power, will, and belief to do such a thing. He spent the majority of his life so he could live well after death. The Egyptians never even questioned why; they just accepted this religion to be true and made great things because of it.



This is why I find the Egyptians belief in and preparation for the afterlife to be the most interesting topic. They believed in something that there's nothing else quite like it. Also they did such extreme lengths to ensure a prosperous afterlife, even if it meant major consequences for others.








MacQuitty, William. Tutankhamen: The Last Journey. Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, 1978.



Day, Nacy. Your Travel Guide to Ancient Egypt. Learner Publishing Group, Minnesota, 2001.

Cleopatra VII

Cleopatra VII was one of the great women of Ancient Egypt. In Egypt many times women are not recognized, but Cleopatra was an exception. She accomplished many things in her lifetime.


Cleopatra was a very intelligent women and was the first in the royal family to learn Egyptian. (Kemp, 168)

Cleopatra was Macedonian Greek by birth. She was highly educated and spoke seven languages fluently.

(Heart, 64)

Cleopatra first reigned as co-ruler with her father, Ptolomy XII. When Ptolomy died, Cleopatra and younger brother, Ptolomy XIII, joined monarchs. Their first three years of reign were difficult on account of economic difficulties. Some of these were: famine, flood of the Nile, and political conflicts. The relations that Egypt had been completely broke, and by 48 B.C. Ptolomy XIII had ousted Cleopatra from her power. Cleopatra tired to lead a rebellion, but had no choice except to leave.

Cleopatra was strongly linked to Rome. This started when Pompey, Cleopatra's guardian, had been defeated by Caesar at Pharsalia in August of 48 B.C. Pompey fled to Egypt to find refuge from Ptolomy VII. Ptolomy VII, however, killed him the moment he stepped on shore. He did this in hope of creating an alli with Rome. Instead of being filled with joy Caesar was filled with anger. In cause of this Ptolomy drowned in the Nile river. This meant Cleopatra and Ptolomy XVI were the rulers of Egypt.

Soon after Cleopatra became pregnant with Caesar's baby. On June 23, 47B.C. Cleopatra gives birth to a baby boy, Caesarion. Cleopatra then decides that she would go to Rome with Caesar. The Romans were anxious about this, they did not like the eastern way of life, especially aristocracy. Soon there are rumors that Caesar wants to become king. The aristocracy didn't want this to happen so they murdered Caesar. This meant that if the Romans believed Caesar's testament, that Caesarion would become the ruler of Egypt and Rome. Once Caesar was killed there was a fight for power. Caesarion was not considered a successor. The two people that were fighting for power were Anthony and Octavianus.

Cleopatra then returned to Egypt. When her brother died she made Caesarion ruler with her. Then waited for the political struggle to sort out in Rome. Soon Anthony summoned her, she responded eagerly. Cleopatra soon had Anthony in her hand; he even had three men put to death because she felt that they were threatening her throne. Cleopatra later had three children with him. During the Battle of Actinium there was a terrible tragedy. Anthony received a false report that Cleopatra was dead; he stabbed himself.

Cleopatra was hiding in her tomb. Anthony's body was brought to her right before he died. Upon seeing this she held up a serpent and let it put poison into her body. The great Cleopatra was dead.

After Cleopatra's suicide Egypt fell into Rome hands and was no longer an independent empire. (David, 44)

During her life Cleopatra accomplished great things. She was even "queen" of two empires. Yet she took her own life in a tragic death. Cleopatra changed many things in Egypt and was the last person to rule the rich land of Egypt from the house of the Ptolemy, a family that had ruled Egypt for generations.

David, Rosalie, Handbook to Life in Ancient Egypt. Contemporary Publishing Group, Inc. New York, 1998.

Heart, george, Ancient Egypt. DK Publishing, Inc. New York, 2004.

Kemp, Barry, Think Like an Egyptian - 100 Hieroglyphs. Penguin Group. New York, 2005.

Tutankhamen

Tutankamen was one of the great Pharoahs of Egypt. During his life he did many things and after his death he was known for great things. Tutankamen was a inormous figure in Egyptain history.

Not much is known about Tutankhamen's life, but his parents are thought to be Akhenaten and Kiya. He was born in 1370 B.C.E. Thutankamen became pharaoh at a very early age and reigned for eight years. His wife, Ankhnesamon, was often thought to be the cause for Akhenaton's reign as pharaoh.

Early in his reign he changed his name from Tutankhaten , living image of Aten, to Tutankhamun. Ankhesenpaaten changed her name to Ankhnesamun. They did this because Tutankhamen wanted to distinguish a difference between him and his father's religion. He did not worship one god like his father and wanted to make it known to all the people of Egypt. Little was recorded of his reign. His name was even omitted from the king lists of Abydos and Karnak.

Tutankhamun died from natural causes, gangrene caused by a broken leg. However, before recent finds Tutankhamun was thought to be murdered. The two prime suspects were Aye who succeeded him as king, and General Horemhab who in turn succeeded Aye to the throne. They both ruled Egypt during Tutankhamen's childhood. Tutankhamen died in 1352 B.C.E.

On November 22, 1922, Carter found Tutankhamen's tomb.

"Encased in a coffin of pure gold, the Egyptian King lay in the blackest darkness, surrounded by unfathomable silence. He was immersed in a small slice of the royal world of the pharaohs: golden chariots, statues of gold and ebony, a fleet of miniature ships to accommodate his trip to the netherworld, his throne of gold, toys from his youth, bottles of perfume, precious jewelry, and more. Every corner, every niche of this time capsule from ancient Egypt was filled with priceless objects." http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/tut.htm

Tutankhamen had three coffins, the inner most one being made of solid gold of an inch thick. The first coffin was made of wood and was 7ft 4in in length. The second coffin had some forms of dampness, it was 6ft 8in in length and in had gold inlaid on it. On his mummy alone there was outrageous amounts of jewelry. They were an outstanding 146 pieces. There were four rooms in his tomb, Annex, Antechamber, Burial Chamber, and Treasury. (Brandt 151)

In the course of his excavations, Carter observed that two robbers had made their entry into the tomb and made an opinion on what they had stole. On the first occasion the entrance passage had been cleared, then filled it. On the second occasion the filling had been there so the robbers had to dig a small tunnel under the ceiling of the passage and against the left wall. When these robberies were discovered officials entered the tomb and made some attempt to restore it, however there work was perfunctory. After they did this they patched the whole made by the robbers and repeated the act of blocking the inner and outer doorways. (Edwards 42)

Tutankhamen was a great pharaoh. Even though he was not known by many people before his amazing tomb was found, he was still an important figure in Ancient Egyptian history.

Brandt, Anthony, The Tomb of Tutankhamen - Howard Carter. National Geographic Society, London, 1873.

Edwards, I.E.S., The Treasures of Tutankhamun.The Viking Press Inc., New York, 1972.

Ramses II

Egypt went threw many great pharaohs, however one of the greatest was Ramses II. He was thought to be so great that he was often called "Ramses the Great". He expanded Egypt a great deal and built many amazing structures. He had an interesting life and I believe it's worth telling.

Ramses II was the son of Seti I and Queen Tuya. When he was younger he worked as co-ruler beside his father. This enabled him to have experience before he excepted the title of pharaoh. Soon after his father died, in 1290 B.C., Ramses II became pharaoh. He then ruled as the third king of the 19th dynasty. His mother, Tuya went down from the title of Queen to the King;s mother, which acted as his adviser. His first act was to wage war on Syrai, later known as the Battle of Kadesh. This battle would indicate who had control over Syria. Ramses II lead his army of 20,000 to war, all while trying to maintain his empire against the Hittites. In spite of this his tactics were not well planned, therefore he was forced to retreat. This did not slow him down thou, he moved on and started building his empire up through architecture.

After this first battle all stood at a stand still for some time, but there was then a treaty signed that divided the land and stated that Ramses II would marry the daughter of the Hittites king. Later in his reign Ramses II attacked many of his enemies such as the Libyans and the Nubians and also attacked Syria about half a dozen times.



Ramses II had eight royal wives. These eight wives were Nefertari, Istnofret, Bint-Anath, Meryetamun, Nebettawy, Henutmire, Maathorneferure, Name Unknown. He had many other wives, but these were his eight principle wives. Nefertari, however, was his first and favorite wife.



Ramses II accomplished many things in his reign. One of his major ones was he became one of the famous Egyptian pharaohs known for his military strength. He gained back much of the territory that was lost during another pharaohs reign. Another of Ramses II's great accomplishments is he built more monuments than any of the other ancient Egyptian pharaohs. The Ramses II monument at Abu Simbel is the most famous of all. He did this because of his great love for architecture. These are a few of Ramses II's great accomplishments during his reign.





Ramses II lived to be an astonishing ninety-two. Outgrowing some of his children, Ramses II lived almost double the live expectancy back then. Some of the medical problems that studies have found were problems with his heart and hip, and he had a broken nose. This was unusual for a pharaoh to have. Even thou he lived a extremely long life, all must die.

Ramses II's tomb is located in the Valley of the Kings, and remains empty. After being looted by tomb robbers for years, the tomb is now being restored. Even thou the tomb is empty the mummy of Ramses II has been found, and is thought to be the one of the best preserved mummies ever discovered. (Valikovsky 203)

After Ramses II's death there was many confusion about who would be the next Pharaoh, however, with so many sons there was much fighting. For a few years they fought for the throne. Most of their reigns were brief and did not do much for Egypt. When Ramses II died Egypt entered a decline, that it would never fulling recover from. (Lassieur 75)

Ramses II lived a long life and accomplished many things during his reign. He even brought Egypt to one of its highest points in history. To this day Ramses II is remembered as a great man who changed Egypt forever.

Lassieur, Allison. The Ancient Egyptians, Lucent Books, Inc.; San Diego, 2001.

Velikovsky, Immanuel. Ramses II and His Time, Doubleday & Company, Inc.; New York, 1978.

The Reign of Pharaoh Akhenaten

The Egyptians used a system of government that was controled by a person called pharaoh. The pharaoh had much power for the Egyptian believed that they were a god on earth. One of these powerful pharaohs is Akhenaten. He ruled and was looked upon as a very important person in life according to the Egyptians. During his reign many changes occured, even his family changed significantly.









He ruled Ancient Egypt for 17 long years; 1352- 1336 BCE. (Romer 26)



Early in Akhenaten reign he changed his name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten, meaning"the Servant of Aten". Towards the beginning he also introduced a monotheistic worship of Aten, the Sun God. He placed temples for Aten by other gods temples at first, but soon he closed all other temples and took their revenues. During this religion revolution he placed himself as the intermediary between his people and Aten. This made him a god-king, and the first king to be called Pharaoh. Akhenaten changed Egypt's religion dramatically throughout his reign.


~ Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and their childeren worshiping Aten . ~

Akhenaten and Nefertiti moved out of Thebes to a new capitol called Akhetaton in honor of Aten. They built many extraordinary buildings and conducted remarkable ceremonies in the temples and palaces. Soon the capital Akhetaton gained much power and many things relied on it.

In the course of his reign the art was also changed with great impact. The main motivation why it changed was to accompany the Pharaoh's new religion. One of the ways art was changed during this time was a new exaggerated style. This featured an elongated face, slit like eyes and a pendant chin. This is one of the changes that happened during Akhenaten's reign.

"The period of the rule of King Akhenaten and his queen Nefertiti during the Fourteenth Century BCE is known as today the Armana Phase of the Egyptian ruling dynasties, resulting from the King's construction of a new capital city he called Akhetaten (Horizon of the Aten) at an archeological site contemporarily known as Armana."


http://bierwirthtree.tripod.com/webnotes/egyptian.html


Akhenaten was married to Nefertiti at the beginning of his reign. They had six known daughters: Meritaten, Meketaten, Ankhesenpaaten, Neferneferuaten tasherit, Neferneferuaten, and Setepenre. Ankhesenpaaten married Tutankhamun soon after her father died. It is said that he was married to a Women named Kiya, in his later reign.

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Kiya~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

"The Egyptian did not make a tragic or heroic event of the death of royalty: rather they hushed it up as the triumph of evil over righteousness. . . We have no offical account of Akhenaten's end, but in his case it would have been only fitting if his apotheosis had been into the falcon of Re-Herakhte." (Aldred 290)

Akhenaten ruled Egypt for many year. During this time he influenced the Egypt and its people greatly. Even though he was not looked on as a heroic figure when he died, in my opinion he was still a great pharaoh that changed Egypt forever.











Romer, John,Valley of the Kings, The Orion Publishing Group; London, 1981.

Alreed, Cyril, Akhenaten: King of Egypt, Thames and Hudson Inc.; Germany, 1991.

The Pyramids of Giza

The Ancient Egyptians had a very different view of life in comparison to the present day period. To them life on earth was vastly shorter than life after death. For that reason they went to extreme lengths to ensure a prosperous afterlife. One example of this idea is the remarkable pyramids of Giza. They demonstrated how far these individual Egyptians went for their afterlife.

The pyramids of Giza were constructed during the 4th dynasty, or 2613-2498 B.C. The pharaohs that built them were Cheops (or Khufu), Chephren (or Khafre), and Mycerinus (or Menkaure). Khufu built the largest of the three pyramids. It originally stood at 146.6 meters tall and its base was 230.3 meters around. It sides were covered in fine white polished limestone. The Pyramid of Khafre is often thought to be larger than the pyramid of his father, Khufu, but it is not. It originally only stood at 143.5 meters compared to 146.6 meters.The smallest of the three pyramids is the Pyramid of Menkaure, it originally stood at 66 meters. There are also three smaller pyramids that lay beside the pyramid of Khufu. They were created for the three wives of Khufu. (Hart 20)

Each of these pharaohs obviously cared a great deal about their afterlife and recognition of the ages to come. I believe that they succeeded one of these; no person can see a picture of these extraordinary pyramids and not recognize the greatness of the one who built it.

Monumental tombs were built to house the royal mummies and everything they would need for life in the hereafter - clothes, jewelry, chairs, beds, dishes, even food. (Giblin 12)

The Pyramids of Giza are said to be built by the labor of 100,000 men. This is often hard to believe, but there are various archaeological facts that support this idea. One of them is they have found the camps of the men that built the pyramids. These men shaped the blocks for the pyramid with copper tools. Then using wooden sleds dragged the blocks manually or with oxen along roads to the pyramids construction site. Then they were raised on ramps as the pyramid became larger. When the pyramid was complete these ramps would be disassembled. This is how the pyramids of Giza were built.

Many believe that the Great Pyramid was built by slaves, however 100,000 people worked on it for three months; when the Nile flooded. The flooding made it impossible for farming, thus the building of the pyramid gave jobs to the unemployed.


The Pyramids of Giza have many remarkable features and history, above are a few of the many. This shows how amazing the Pyramids of Giza are.





Giblin, James Cross. Secrets of the Sphinx, Scholastic Press; New York, 2004.



Hart, George. Eyewitness Ancient Egypt, DK Publishing, Inc.; New York, 2004.