Pompeii and the Eruption of Vesuvius

In 79 A.D the great volcano of Mount Vesuvius exploded killing many of the inhabitants of the near by city Pompeii. This was a very extraordinary event in the history of the Roman Empire.

The city of Pompeii was an ancient city located in southern Italy southeast of Naples. It was founded in the sixth or early fifth century B.C., and was a Roman colony by 80 B.C. It became a prosperous port and resort with many noted villas, temples, theaters, and baths. The city was under the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. It was a favorite resort for wealthy Romans, reaching a population of about 20,000 at the beginning of the Christian era. It was also a place of considerable trade and was the port town of Nola and other inland cities of the fertile valley of the Sarnies.

Pompeii was damaged by and earthquake in 63 A.D., but the city would encounter much more than this in its coming years.

On August 24, 79 A.D. Mount Vesuvius blew up and tons of molten ash, pumice and sulfuric gas miles into the atmosphere. The poisonous vapors and molten debris suffocated the inhabitants of Pompeii and the near by cities of Herculaneum and Stabiae. Tons of falling debris filled the streets until nothing remained to be seen of the once thriving communities. The cities remained buried and undiscovered for almost 1700 years until excavation began in 1748.

In a second letter to Tacitus, Pliny describes what happened to him and to his mother during the second day of the disaster: "Ashes were already falling, not as yet very thickly. I looked round: a dense black cloud was coming up behind us, spreading over the earth like a flood.'Let us leave the road while we can still see,'I said,'or we shall be knocked down and trampled underfoot in the dark by the crowd behind.'We had scarcely sat down to rest when darkness fell, not the dark of a moonless or cloudy night, but as if the lamp had been put out in a closed room.
You could hear the shrieks of women, the wailing of infants, and the shouting of men; some were calling their parents, others their children or their wives, trying to recognize them by their voices. People bewailed their own fate or that of their relatives, and there were some who prayed for death in their terror of dying. Many besought the aid of the gods, but still more imagined there were no gods left, and that the universe was plunged into eternal darkness for evermore.

There were people, too, who added to the real perils by inventing fictitious dangers: some reported that part of Misenum had collapsed or another part was on fire, and though their tales were false they found others to believe them. A gleam of light returned, but we took this to be a warning of the approaching flames rather than daylight. However, the flames remained some distance off; then darkness came on once more and ashes began to fall again, this time in heavy showers. We rose from time to time and shook them off, otherwise we should have been buried and crushed beneath their weight. I could boast that not a groan or cry of fear escaped me in these perils, but I admit that I derived some poor consolation in my mortal lot from the belief that the whole world was dying with me and I with it."

Archaeologists began excavating Pompeii during the 18th century. Here they found the remains of people, ancient buildings, and other artifacts preserved amid the volcanic debris. Among the structures uncovered was The Forum of Pompeii. (McIntosh 29)

The ash mixed with rain, settled around the volcano’s victims, creating molds. These molds remained intact long after the bodies had decayed. Archaeologists pour liquid plaster into the forms, preserving the exact shapes of the bodies at the moment of death. (Place, 28)

Since that fateful day there have been subsequent eruptions that have reshaped the mountain. They occurred about every 100 years until 1037. On the 16th December 1631, a major eruption destroyed all the towns that had grown at the foot of the mountain. Over the next 300 years there were 23 eruptions of various degrees. The last known eruption was in 1944 when the Allied forces were attacking Italy. The volcano bubbles and smokes yet today. With modern technology, the people living in the area should be given adequate warning prior to any future eruption. Property will be damaged but lives can be saved.




Place, Robin. Bodies From the Past. Thomson Learning, New York, 1995.

McIntosh, Jane. Archeology. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1994.

The Stoic Movement of Ancient Rome

In Ancient Rome they believed in the philosophy of Stoicism. They were called the stoics, because the school's founder, Zeno of Cyprus met his students at the Stoa Poikile on the north side of the market place in Athens.Through rational living and self-control, Zeno and his followers sought to find the source of virtue, and thus happiness, within themselves rather than in external things. The stoics believed that the world is a changing conflagration, or fire, which is limited and ordered by a creative force called Logos, or God. Virtue consists of a man's consciously governing the fires of his action, or desires, by reason. The virtuous man is self-sufficient and undisturbed, this meaning that they were not a slave of circumstances or emotions. Like Socrates, he faces events with calmness, living an honest and rational life. Stoics believed in the kinship and equality of all men, on the grounds that every person possesses a spark of the divine fire, or God. They saw the highest good in the contemplation of God and the universe. The history of Stoicism is divided into three periods called the Old Stoa (300 B.C.-129 B.C.), the Middle Stoa (129 B.C.-30 B.C.), and the Late Stoa (30 B.C.-200 A.D.). During the Late Stoa, the Stoic school shifted from Athens to Rome, where Stoicism stressed the importance of citizenship and honor. Roman Stoics often were advisers to Roman emperors. Stoicism even influenced the Christians in ancient Rome.

Stoicism was the most influential philosophy in the Roman Empire during the period preceding the rise of Christianity. Marcus Aurelius was among the most famous Stoics of the Roman era, as well as one of the fiercest persecutors of the Roman Christians during his reign as emperor. The Roman stoics influenced Christians then and changed Christianity that is still studied today.

Zeno of Cyprus

Stoicism believed that all people are manifestations of the one universal spirit and should live in brotherly love and readily help one another. They held that differences such as rank and wealth are of no importance in social relationships. Thus, before Christianity, Stoics recognized and advocated the brotherhood of humanity and the natural equality of all human beings. (Durant 975)

The primary duty one owes is to the state, according to Stoicism. Since God is using the Roman state to further law and civilization, performing one's duty is a religious act. The principal being to which one owes respect is, of course, God; since God is working out his will in history by using the Roman state and Roman officials , the respect one shows for Roman authorities is also a respect shown for God. (Durant 301)

Stoicism was in Rome during the Hellenistic Era. After the death of Zeno of Citium, the Stoic school was headed by Cleanthes and Chrysippus, and its teachings were carried to Rome in 155 by Diogenes of Babylon. Stoic ideas appear in the greatest work of Roman literature, and later the philosophy was adopted by Seneca, Lucan, a poet and associate of the Emperor Nero, Epictetus, and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Stoicism is perhaps the most significant philosophical school in the Roman Empire, and much of our contemporary views and popular mythologies about Romans are derived from Stoic principles.

In 86, the Roman's excepted the Greek philosophy, stoicism, with open arms. Many Roman politicians at least adopted the high moral tone of Stoicism according to which only virtue is a genuine good, while money, health and even life itself are simply preferred indifferents. Many famous figures in Ancient Rome were either believed in stoicism or had a person who influenced them that did. Such as Cato the Younger and Scipio Aemilianus. Pompey thought it sufficiently important to look in on the Stoic philosopher Panaetius of Rhodes in his comings and goings. Octavian had a Stoic tutor. Among the Roman emperors, the Stoic philosopher Seneca was the advisor of Nero.

The Greeks followed stoicism before the Romans, but he Romans were a far more practical people than the Greeks, and more skilled at governing. Stoicism became the strongest force in Roman life. The two best known Roman Stoic writers were Epictetus, a slave, and Marcus Aurelius, an Emperor. Perhaps we could best get a feel for their attitudes by reading their words directly for once truth becomes of secondary importance to living then it is feelings and not logical order which tell us the real meaning of a culture.

Ancient Rome was a strong believer in Stoicism and this belief was passed on to the Christians. This shows that Stoicism was a great philiosophy and that it influenced the Christian religion to this day.

Durant, Will. Caesar and Christ. Simon and Schuster, Inc., New York, 1950.

Durant, Will. The Age of Faith. Simon and Schuster, Inc., New York, 1950.

The Relation Between the Growth of Christianity and the Roman Empire

The popular religion, known as Christianity, began its main growth during the Roman Empire. Christianity was one of the many different religions competing for the attention of people of the Roman Empire during the first three centuries CE.The growth that took place during this time was extraordinary.

One of the reasons for this growth, of the Christian religion was due to the popularity of different facets of the religion. These included its universal acceptance of all people regardless of their pasts, the strong sense of community within its congregations, its duty to care for the weak, sick and needy. The Roman people greatly liked these ideas. Combined with the great demographic shifts that were occurring in the Roman Empire, Christianity went through a time of great development and expansion. With the Roman Empire new there were many immigrants that wanted to have acceptance into the Roman society, to find a sense of belonging. Since Christianity accepted all, these immigrant would be given acceptance into a close-knit community.

Another way in which Christianity was spread throughout the Roman Empire was while the empire was newly established the Romans were tolerant of different religious customs. This gave Christians the opportunity to teach and spread their message to the Roman people. One man who spread the Christian religion throughout Rome was St. Paul who founded Christian churches in Asia Minor and Greece. Eventually, he took his teachings to Rome itself. In Rome there was a road system throughout all of the empire. St. Paul walked on these very roads to spread the message of Christ. By just the fourth century Christianity was known at the state religion within the Roman Empire.

Another man who taught the Christian message in Rome was Peter. The Apostle Peter is known to have established his headquarters in the city, following his thirty-year ministry in the East. The Apostle Peter was martyred in Rome.

Within the Roman Empire there were many ways to get from one part of the region to the other. This helped Christianity to have the ability to spread. Roads led from Rome to every part of its dominion. Travel was made, if not easy, at least not impossible. This ease of communication made it possible for disciples to spread the Christian message all over the ancient world. Another example of a human who used this is St. Paul; as mentioned previously. If the Roman Empire had not existed, missionaries would have found it extremely difficult to cross the borders of very different and often warring nations without finding themselves accused and punished as an enemy, before they had a chance to spread the good news.

Another reason in which the Christian message was spread throughout Rome, was that it was a very grand empire with many types of people with in it. Also the cruelty of the Roman empires grew the faith of those already converted and converted yet more. And lastly, the oppressed nature of the subjects of the Roman Empire made the message of Christ welcome to these lower classes. The message was for the rich and the poor. (Ackroyed 127)

The first converts were usually the poor and slaves for they had a great deal to gain from the Christians. If they were caught, they faced death for failing to worship the emperor. It was not uncommon for emperors to turn Rome's people against the Christian religion when Rome was faced with difficulties. (Bass 41)

This is how Christianity was spread throughout Rome. The Roman Empire helped the growth of the Christian religion greatly.

Ackroyd, Pete. Ancient Rome. DK Publishing, Inc., New York, 2005.

Bass, Newton T. Timelines of History: Volume II. Grolier, Scholastic Library Publishing, Connecticut, 2005.

The Greek and Roman gods

The Greeks and Romans had many similarities and contrasts. One area in which this took place is in their gods.




It was in the late 4th Century B.C. that Roman and Greek mythology began to intertwine. The Greeks and the Romans were very different people at this point in time. The Romans were war based and worked on expanding their territory. The Greeks, however, were art based. They created beautiful statues that held much importance. By the 2nd Century B.C. the Romans made significant progress in conquering a large portion of Greece. Here their different life styles began to interact and intermix. Before long the gods of theses religions influenced each other and were accepted. This is how we get two different religions with the same gods.

Both of the major and minor gods were in both mythologies. Such as
Erinyes or Furiae, Eris or Discordia, Eros or Cupid, Fates or Morae, Graces or Charities, Helios or Sol, Hours or Horae, Pan or Faunus, and Tyche or Fortuna.


"Much of the Roman mythology was barrowed from the Greeks. But while the stories remain essentially the same, the names have been changed. The Romans also have myths of their own, completely separate from thoses of the Greeks." (Bolton 245)



The Greeks and Romans shared the same stories, but used different names. Such as both religions had the twelve Olympians, but each had different names. The twelve Olympians in Greek mythology are: Zeus, Poseidon, Hades, Hestia, Hera, Ares, Athena, Apollo, Aphrodite, Hermes, Artemis and Hephaestus. The twelve Olympians in Roman mythology are: Jupiter,Neptune, Pluto, Vesta, Juno, Mars, Minerva, Apollo, Venus, Mercury, Diana and Vulcan.









Many of the Roman and Greek gods have the same character, but with different names. One example is the Greek god Zeus. In Roman mythology he is known as Jupiter. However, in both religions he is the lord of the sky, gods, thunder,and Rain. He is also the known as the cloud-gatherer. This shows that both saw him as the same person with the same characteristics, but just used a different name to refer to him.


The gods were like humans, but more magnificent. There superhuman qualities, of courage, skill, and intelligence, were for people to imitate. But these wounderful super beings also fell in love and fought wach other. Even then, they did not suffer pain, or die, as they did not have blood in their bodies, but divine ichor. (Hull 7)



The Greeks and Romans also believed that the same gods created them, but agian just used different names. They thought of their creation as: In the beginning, there was only Chaos and Eros. Gaea, the earth, Erebus, the underworld, and Night emerged from the mixing of these two, and Gaea gave birth to Uranus, the heavens, who then became her mate, and Oceanus, the oceans. Gaea and Uranus together produced the twelve Titans, three Cyclopes, and three hundred-handed giants, or Hecatoncheires, but Uranus feared his children as a threat to his throne, and bade Gaea take them back into her womb. Gaea loved her children, however, and hated Uranus' tyranny. She supplied her youngest child, Chronos, with a sickle, and told him to kill his father with it. He cut off Uranus' genitals, and these fell into the sea and from them were created Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and the Fates, the Giants, and the Meliai nymphs. Chronos succeeded Uranus on the throne and married his sister Rhea. He freed the Titans and shared his kingdom among them, but imprisoned the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires in Tartarus, a fiery pit much like Hell. Chronos and Rhea had six children, who would become six of the gods of the Greek pantheon. Chronos, however, was similarly afraid of his children, and decided to swallow him. Rhea plotted to keep the youngest, Zeus, out of Chronos' way, and gave her husband a rock swaddled in cloth to swallow instead. Zeus was raised on the island of Crete and grew into a handsome youth. Eventually he slipped Chronos a drink to vomit up his other five siblings, and they and Prometheus, one of the Titans, fought and defeated Chronos and the Titans for power. Zeus ruled the earth and married his sister Hera; the gods together created humans to entertain and amuse them as they watched from their home on Mount Olympus.






These are the simularities and contrasts of the Roman and Greek gods.







Bolton, Lesley. The Everything Classical Mythology Book. F+W Publications, Inc., Ma, USA, 2002.



Hull, Robert. Religion & the gods. Sea-toSea Publications, Minnesota, Ca, 2007.

The Art of Ancient Rome

The art of Ancient Rome was greatly influenced by Etruscan art. This also meant that it had a close relationship with Greek art. Roman art really starts to evolve in 500 B.C. with the beginning of the Roman Republic. The Romans were very interested in portraiture; that is making statues that replicate one particular person. The Greeks, however, were interested in ideals, while the Roman were interested in reality. They wanted to show people how they really were instead of making them look as if they were gods.

In about 200 B.C. the Romans conquered Greece and began to imitate their art style. During their conquest in Greece, they looted town and brought the art home. They also brought sculptors home to serve as slaves. The first Roman statues were created in the Roman Republic. Another type of Roman art was painting on plaster. These paintings were painted on a wall, that was made up of three layers of plaster and three layers of a special coating. The colors were applied when the plaster was still wet. This made the amazing paintings to last for the ages to come. The Romans also painted on canvas. These paintings were often of famous battles. They were put in temples or public buildings. Unfortunately none of these paintings have withstood time.

"By the time of the empire, there was a great demand for scullptures to honor the emperor and other important people. The sculptures were put up in public quares, halls, and temples, and some were even placed on top of columns. The idea was to show the power of the empire. Many statues were made of the first emperor, Augustus, and most made him look like a young hero." (Morris 7)

Art was often in the houses of the uper class Romans. They would have beautiful floors covered with mosacis. Mosacis are pictures made with thousands of tiny tiles. There would also be paintings on their walls. (Minnis 19)

Another type of Rome art is architecture. One example is the Triumphal Arch of Tibias. It was made of many different types of archs and columns. The triumphal arch used relief sculpture and inscription to carry its historic and commemorative messages. The Romans also built the Colosseum and the Pantheon. The Colosseum was originally four stories high. It had a total spectator capacity of 45,000-55,000. The Amphitheater is built of travertine outside, and of tufa and brick in the interior. The main pedestals were built of marble blocks. This shows how artistic the Romans were.

The art of Rome in the first and second centuries mainly continued to imitate the traditional styles of Greek art. In the third century, however, many new ideas were established in Roman art. The first new style in Roman art was the taste for bloodshed in art. This was a result of the wars with the Germans in the north. One example is the column of Marcus Aurelius. In it there were many senes of violence and bloodshed. Second, there was an increasing use of the drill, rather than the chisel. Even thou it was easier and faster, it gave the art a different look. The third way in which Rome art changed is the new concern for the soul. This was because there were more and more Christians in the Roman Empire. In art, this shows up as a lot of emphasis on the eyes, which were thought to be the windows to the soul, often with the eyes looking upward to heaven, or toward the gods.

As Rome expanded it took its art with it. It was excepted by many different peoples and its influence and heritage survives in all branches of the arts today.

Minnis, Ivan. You Are in Ancient Rome, Raintree, Inc.; Chicago, Illinois, 2005.

Morris, Ting. Arts and Crafts of Ancient Rome. Smart Apple Media; North Man kato, 2007.

Final Questions

1) The most prominent building in a Sumerian city-state was?
-----a) zigguart *
-----b) city dwelling
-----c) defense tower
-----d) public building
2) The Sumerian city-states contained how many major social groups?
-----a) two
-----b) three *
-----c) four
-----d) five
3) What city-state was north of Sumerian?
-----a) Marathon
-----b)Thermopylae
-----c) Akkadians *
-----d) Issus
4) What was the climate like in Mesopotamia?
-----a) ferocious floods
-----b) heavy downpours
-----c) scorching winds
-----d) all of the above *
5) How many laws were in the Code of Hammurabi?
-----a) 181
-----b) 282
-----c) 288
-----d) 188
6) The Sumerians created a writing system that:
-----a) was picture-like
-----b) was stick-like
-----c) was wedge shaped *
-----d) didn't create a writing system
7) The Sumerians made outstanding achievements in which of the following?
-----a) astronomy
-----b) mathematics
-----c) astronomy and mathematics *
-----d) none of the above
8) The process of mummification was run by which of the following?
-----a) the pharaoh
-----b) slaves
-----c) workers
-----d) priests *
9) The largest of the pyramids were built by which of the following?
-----a) king Khufu *
-----b) Akhenaten
-----c) Ramses II
------d) Alexander the Great
10) Explain the social classes of the Sumerian city-state?
-----Nobles - royal and priestly officials and their families.
-----Commoners - workers of the palace and temple estates and farmers, merchants, fishers, and craftspeople.
-----Slaves - people who belonged to palace officials, who used than mostly in building projects.

The Ancient Greeks influenced future generations in the area of architect very much. Some of the examples of this are in Ancient Rome and in modern society. The Greeks influenced many cultures and there are many architectual iteams to show it.

The architecture of Ancient Rome were adopted from Greece in the sense of relation between there issues and styles during their era. This can be seen in the Roman tricliniums as a place of dinning manner. The Romans were also similar in the way that they were in debt to their Etruscan neighbors and those who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge esential for future architectural solutions.

The Etruscan People

One way inwhich the Greeks influenced the Romans archatectually is in AD 330. The Roamns moved their capital to a Greek city; Constantinople. (Powell, 49)

As Greek became a main influence in architecture for Rome, the Romans took Greece's ideas and their own and created the arch and the dome. This is used to this day. This is another way inwhich the Greeks influenced Rome and Greece.

During the seventh century B.C.E. the Greeks had spread out from their ealier boundries. In this time period the Romans had begun to move away from the Etruscan rule. The Romans then came in contact with the Greeks; who were to the southeast. After the Second Punic War Rome became increasinly involved with Greece. The Romans started to import marble and show Greek architiecture in their designs; such as the Temple of Portunus. This is how the Greek architecture influenced Rome.

The Greek architecture also influences modern society. One example is in many of the buildings of Washington D.C. They have colums with the destinctive greece design; sucj as the Dorid and Ionic. Even the White House has pilars that can be reconized for there Greek influence. The Greeks also influenced America in the simple sense of building houses. Withut the Greeks our country would look very different.

The Greek architecture was exepted by the Americans bcause they found it easier to build than the Roman style. This shows that because the Greeks made simple architecture future generations took to it and used in in their own creative text.

The Greeks used simpler architectural designs than the Romans. Two of them were the Doric and Ionic. The Doric style is sturdy, and its top is plain. This style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. The Ionic style is thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design. This style was used in eastern Greece and islands. (Pearson, 27)

These are a few of the many civilizations inwhich the Greek architecture influenced. The Greeks influenced many future cultures and changed many lives.

Pearson, Anne. Eyewitness Ancient Greece. DK Publishing, New York, 1992.

Powell, Anton. Atlas for Young People: Ancient Greece. Lionheart Books, Oxford, 1989.