Final Questions

1) The most prominent building in a Sumerian city-state was?
-----a) zigguart *
-----b) city dwelling
-----c) defense tower
-----d) public building
2) The Sumerian city-states contained how many major social groups?
-----a) two
-----b) three *
-----c) four
-----d) five
3) What city-state was north of Sumerian?
-----a) Marathon
-----b)Thermopylae
-----c) Akkadians *
-----d) Issus
4) What was the climate like in Mesopotamia?
-----a) ferocious floods
-----b) heavy downpours
-----c) scorching winds
-----d) all of the above *
5) How many laws were in the Code of Hammurabi?
-----a) 181
-----b) 282
-----c) 288
-----d) 188
6) The Sumerians created a writing system that:
-----a) was picture-like
-----b) was stick-like
-----c) was wedge shaped *
-----d) didn't create a writing system
7) The Sumerians made outstanding achievements in which of the following?
-----a) astronomy
-----b) mathematics
-----c) astronomy and mathematics *
-----d) none of the above
8) The process of mummification was run by which of the following?
-----a) the pharaoh
-----b) slaves
-----c) workers
-----d) priests *
9) The largest of the pyramids were built by which of the following?
-----a) king Khufu *
-----b) Akhenaten
-----c) Ramses II
------d) Alexander the Great
10) Explain the social classes of the Sumerian city-state?
-----Nobles - royal and priestly officials and their families.
-----Commoners - workers of the palace and temple estates and farmers, merchants, fishers, and craftspeople.
-----Slaves - people who belonged to palace officials, who used than mostly in building projects.

The Ancient Greeks influenced future generations in the area of architect very much. Some of the examples of this are in Ancient Rome and in modern society. The Greeks influenced many cultures and there are many architectual iteams to show it.

The architecture of Ancient Rome were adopted from Greece in the sense of relation between there issues and styles during their era. This can be seen in the Roman tricliniums as a place of dinning manner. The Romans were also similar in the way that they were in debt to their Etruscan neighbors and those who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge esential for future architectural solutions.

The Etruscan People

One way inwhich the Greeks influenced the Romans archatectually is in AD 330. The Roamns moved their capital to a Greek city; Constantinople. (Powell, 49)

As Greek became a main influence in architecture for Rome, the Romans took Greece's ideas and their own and created the arch and the dome. This is used to this day. This is another way inwhich the Greeks influenced Rome and Greece.

During the seventh century B.C.E. the Greeks had spread out from their ealier boundries. In this time period the Romans had begun to move away from the Etruscan rule. The Romans then came in contact with the Greeks; who were to the southeast. After the Second Punic War Rome became increasinly involved with Greece. The Romans started to import marble and show Greek architiecture in their designs; such as the Temple of Portunus. This is how the Greek architecture influenced Rome.

The Greek architecture also influences modern society. One example is in many of the buildings of Washington D.C. They have colums with the destinctive greece design; sucj as the Dorid and Ionic. Even the White House has pilars that can be reconized for there Greek influence. The Greeks also influenced America in the simple sense of building houses. Withut the Greeks our country would look very different.

The Greek architecture was exepted by the Americans bcause they found it easier to build than the Roman style. This shows that because the Greeks made simple architecture future generations took to it and used in in their own creative text.

The Greeks used simpler architectural designs than the Romans. Two of them were the Doric and Ionic. The Doric style is sturdy, and its top is plain. This style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. The Ionic style is thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design. This style was used in eastern Greece and islands. (Pearson, 27)

These are a few of the many civilizations inwhich the Greek architecture influenced. The Greeks influenced many future cultures and changed many lives.

Pearson, Anne. Eyewitness Ancient Greece. DK Publishing, New York, 1992.

Powell, Anton. Atlas for Young People: Ancient Greece. Lionheart Books, Oxford, 1989.

Art of Ancient Greece

The art of ancient Greece was so amazing that it had an effect throughout the ages. Many of the styles have been copied or reproduced. We often look back on Greece art and use it to produce today's art and architecture.


On of the arts of ancient Greece was architecture. An example is the many temples they built. The temples had a religious purpose as well as political purpose. The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric style was used in mainland Greece and the colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. The ionic style was fancier and was found in eastern Greece and the islands. The most elaborate of the three was the Corinthian style which was often seen on Roman temples.

Another of Greek's art was sculptures. One of the most important sculptures is the Charioteer of Delphi. It represents the balance between stylized geometric representation and idealized realism, thus capturing the moment in history when western civilization progressed forward to define its own foundations that braced it for the future.

Another of the Greek's sculptures is the Kouros. It was a man in a frontal pose with their left leg moved forward, their arms close to their bodies touching the side of their thighs.

Another of the Greek art was painting. They painted detailed pictures on the vases. The vases changed from place to place and from time to time. (Powell,80)

There were four periods of Greek art: the Geometric Period, the Archaic Period, the Classical Period and the Hellenistic Period. During the Geometric Period large-scale ceramic vessels were produced as grave markers. The first vessels had small portions filled with simple stick-figure people, often attending a funeral. The Archaic Period had two major types of art: vase-painting and sculpture. The vase painting was diverted from the Geometric Period and was the primary technique of Archaic vase-painting; It was known as the black-figure vase-painting technique. The statues of this time were made out of bronze and marble. They were often created for temples. The last Greece art period was the Classical Period. . In vase-painting, the technique changes from black-figures to red-figures, where the backgrounds are now painted in black, and the natural color of the red clay now represents flesh tones. Bronze sculpture was another major art form of Classical Greece. During this time another major event was the building of the Parthenon of Athens. These were the periods of Ancient Greece's art. The Hellenistic Period was the time in which Greek art was extended to their lands. The growth of violence was also extended in this time.

During these periods. there were no sharp changes in artistic style. There, however, was smooth changes between the art periods of Ancient Greece.

One effect of the changes in the periods of art was that the ancient greek artist were learning new techniques and addressing new problems. (Garland,199)

The Ancient Greek art gave birth to the western classical art. It also took influence in the Eastern civilizations and the new religion of Orthodox Christianity in the Byzantine era and absorbed Italian and European ideas during the period of Romanticism.

This is the basis for Ancient Greek art. It was very extraordinary and influenced many people and country in the years that followed.

Garland, Robert. Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks, Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. United States, 1998.

Powell, Anton. Ancient Greece, Library of Congress Cataloging Publications, England, 1989.

Alexander the Great's most noteworthy accomplishment

Alexander the Great's most noteworthy accomplishment in my opinion was the conquering of the countries from Greece to western India. In this he grew a well-built army and by using his great brillance suceeded in many military advances.

Before Alexander the Great became a great conqueror he was a boy. He was son of Phillip 2 and Oympias. His father was king of Macedonia. As a child he was tutored by Aristotle in the subjects of rhetoric, literature, science, and medicine. At the early age of eighteen, Alexander had led a group of cavalry in the battle of Chaeronea against the two Greek cities-states Athens and Thebes. This helped his father win this battle and gain control over much of Greece. This shows that Alexander started his military training and practice at a young age. Phillip 2 decided to have a war with the Persians, but before he had the chance he was assassinated in 336B.

Soon after his father's death Alexander took the throne. Once becoming king he quickly executed his father's killer and all who opposed him. Then Along with the throne Alexander also received a highly trained army who were organized around the units of pikemen armed with sarissas, fourteen foot long spears. Alexander assembled thirty thousand pikemen, infantrymen, and engineers. He also assembled five thousand cavalry to carry out his father's plan to invade Asia Minor.

Alexander the Great continued his military passion for the rest of his life. Soon after he assembled his army he sacked Thebes. Then he started his conquest of Asia; this is when the battle of Granicus took place. In 333B.C. Alexander then defeats Darius at the battle of Issus, and captures the Family of Darius. He later lays siege to Tyre and enters Egypt. This is when he founded Alexandria in Egypt. In the same year he defeats Darius at the battle of Guagamela, takes Mesapotamia, and enters Babylon, Persepolis, and Pasargadae. In the next three years he burned Persepolis and campaigned in Sogdiana and Bactria. He started his plan be entering India and crossing the Indus River. Here he wins the battle of Hydaspes. He then sails down the Indus River to the India Ocean. In 325 B.C. Alexander returns through Baluchistan and suffers great hardships. In the next two years Alexander received a fever and died from it in 232 B.C. He died at the age of 32. This is a short biography of Alexander's military life. This is one of the reasons why Alexander's military life was his most noteworthy of his accomplishments.

Another one of the reasons why his military life was his most noteworthy accomplishment is the fact that his father created the military phalanx. The phalanx was a flexible unit well drilled and able to take on a variety of formations. Alexander extended his creation and used it in his long military life. The phalanx usually consisted of 16 men on a side, 256 men in each unit, always and exclusively Macedonian. They were armed with the sarissa and The real strength of the phalanx was its many formations and maneuvers. While the square was the usual formation, it could form a line or wedge or other shapes. The soldiers were trained to respond to flag and trumpet signals. No army in the Western world in the 4th century was its equal. This shows that Alexander had military brilliance in his blood and had a great military teacher in his childhood.

" Philip II was Alexander's father and Alexander inherited Philip's desire to conquer the Persians and to rule as much of the world as possiable." (Morgan, 34)

Another reason why this was Alexander's most noteworthy accomplishments is for the reason that he was passionate about it. You can see this in his bravery. He was always at the front and always in the thick of battle. He also was wounded in many battles, such as: wounded in neck and head at the Granicus River, the shoulder at Gaza, and had his lung pierced by an arrow in India. This hows that he would not give up and keep fighting. Alexander was also more than once was the first man over the wall at the storming of a city. For this reason he never lost a battle and was thought to be invincible by his men and his enemies. All of these factors created an army that simply could not be stopped. Its accomplishments eclipsed anything that had ever been done, Alexander and his Macedonians entered into legend.

"Alexander had spent almost almost all of his 13-year reign at war. In the process, he destroyed forever the power of the Greek sity-states. However wherever he went on his campaigns through Asia, he created city-states on the Greek model. . . He is said to have founded some 70 cities all together." (Ackroyd ,120)

These are a few of the many reasons why I believe that Alexander the Great's most noteworthy accomlishment is his military strength and many won battles that support it.

Ackroyd, Peter. Ancient Greece. DK Publishing, Inc., New York, 2005.

Morgan, Nicola. People Who Made History in Ancient Greece. Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, New York, 2001.

The Era of Pericles

The Era of Pericles was very critical for the Greeks. This was because many significant events occurred during this time. Some of them where the Athens became the most splendid of Greek city-states, both politically and culturally with its fleet, making allies with other city-states in the Delian League against the enemy Persia, and with Pericles many great building projects took place.

Pericles was the son of Xanthippus and Agariste. His father was a military leader in the Persian Wars. His father was also victorious at the battle at Mycale. Pericles came from a high class family and received a good education.

During his childhood he was taught by many great teachers. Some of them include: the philosopher Anaxagoras as well as Zenon of Elea. Pericles started as a statesman; and was a supported of democracy. He wanted all the citizens of Athens to take part in politics.

One of the important events Pericles did for Greece was the building of the Acropolis structures. The Acropolis had temples and was also behind the Pnyx, the place where the assembly of the people gathered. The building of these gave many Athenians jobs. This was one of the importance's of Pericles and his era.

The structures on the acropolis is called the Parthenon. When the Persian invaded Athens in 480 BCE, they destroyed its acropolis. Thus Pericles rebuilt a new temple called the Parthenon on the ashes of the old site in 450 BCE. (Ackroyd, 71)

During the Pericles era he also changes many things. One of them were the changing of the Delian League, a collection of city-states bound together with Athens to stand against Persia, into an Athenian Empire. He also collected annual payments from the member states to maintain a fleet of ships, and the money left over was used to improve Athens. These were a few of the many achievements of Pericles during his era.

As leader of the ruling Democratic party, Pericles changed many aspects of Athenian life. He introduced payments for members of the Assembly, so people no longer needed to be rich to play a part in politics. He spread power more widely, although women and slaves still had no power.

(Morgan, 23)

Pericles died from a plauge that swept over Athenens. The historian wrote, "...The plague seized Pericles, not with sharp and violent fits, but with a dull lingering distemper, wasting the strength of his body and undermining his noble soul. "

This is several of the many accomplishments Pericles made during his lifetime. He changed the city-state Athens and the Athenian lives dramatically.

Ackroyd, Peter, Ancient Greece. DK Publishing, Inc., New York, 2005.

Morgan, Nicola, People Who Made History In: Ancient Greece. Raintree Steck-Vaughn Publishers, New York, 2001.

The Athenians and the Spartans

The Athenians and the Spartans had many similarities and differences. They, however, were both great cities in Ancient Greece, despite their different views.

The first main difference is what each city was based on. Sparta was strong in their military and started training their men at early ages. Athens, however, was very different. It focused on economical stature rather than their military forces. Sparta lied in the Peloponnesus, which lied in southern Greece. The Sparta government consist of two kings and a council of elders who advised the monarchs. In this city-state a spartan prepared for the military at childhood. Another doing of the Spartans was to detect if a new born was healthy enough to live. They either wanted healthy warriors of healthy mother of warriors. This was the main economic structure of Sparta.

These babies that were left out to die were sometimes adopted by other families and brought up to be slaves. (Vernerey, 14)

One way in which Sparta was a military based city-state was how they treated the young boys. When they were only seven they were taken from their families to live in army barracks. Their whole lives were dedicated to learning the arts of war. (Pearson, 56)

Athens, however, started with an aristocratic government. This did not work so they soon changed to a democracy. This change occurred because the people didn't like that the economy was forcing them into debt. This debt often became so bad that the Athenians had to sell their families and themselves into slavery. This was the main economic structure of Athens.

The Athenians and Spartans also had many comparisons. Their population was different; Athens had approximately 140,000, while Sparta had Approximately 100,000. They also had dissimilar government systems. The Athens created a city-state of democracy. Sparta created city-state of oligarchy. Athens had elected officials that included 10 generals and magistrates. The Athenian assembly was open to all citizens. They met on the Hill of the Pnyx at the foot of the Acropolis. At the top of the Spartan government were two kings. These kings had the job of general in command of the army and some religious duties. There were five overseers. Their job was to run the day-to-day operations of Sparta. In the Sparta government there were also a council. It was their job to be judges and proposed laws to the citizens. There were 28 men in the council. Sparta also had an assembly. It consisted of all Spartan males 30 years and over. In both government systems women were not to participate in the political life. Another of the differences were the social classes of these ancient civilizations. In the Athenian social class there were freemen; they were all the male citizens. The freemen were split up into three classes: the aristocrats, small farmers, and the thetes. There were also the Metics and slaves. In the Spartan civilization the social structure was similar. There were also three main classes: the Spartiates, the Perioeci, and the Helots. Both, Athens and Sparta had a military strength. For the Athenians it was their navy. For the Spartans it was their army, they were known as the best and most feared fighters on land. These are some of the comparisons between the Athenians and Spartans.

Even thou Athens and Sparta were very different they both managed to become dominating powers in Ancient Greece.

They also both fought each other.

Athens and Sparta were two rival city-states, but at one time they had been united to protect the Greek states from a series of invasions by Persia. There were three major battles against the Persians: the Athenians stopped the Persian king Darius’s invasion of the Greek mainland at the battle of Marathon in 490 BCE. Under their new king Xerxes, the Persians regrouped and invaded Greece again, occupying more than half the country before being defeated by a coalition of 31 city-states, fighting together as Greeks to defend their homeland. Led by Athens and Sparta, the Greeks defeated the Persians at the battle of Salamis in 480 and at Plataea in 479 BCE.

http://www.indiana.edu/~thtr/2002/lysistrata/war.html

These are some of the comparisons between the Athenians and the Spartans. Despite their differences they were both great city-states that modern day people should look back upon.

Vernerey, Denise, The Ancient Greeks: In the Land of the Gods. The Millbrook Press Inc., Connecticut, 1992.

Pearson, Anne, Ancient Greece. DK Publishing Inc., New York, 2004.

In Egyptian history the most interesting topic in my opinion is their belief in and preparation for the afterlife. It amazes me what extremes they went to prepare for this.

The Egyptians saw death as a transitional stage in the progress to a better life in the next world. They believed they could only reach their full potential after death. http://www2.sptimes.com/Egypt/EgyptCredit.4.3.html

The Egyptians believed that the soul was made up of three parts: the Ba, Ka, and Akh. Each of these parts were vital to the Egyptian human. Without all of them the soul would die. The Ba represented the person's personality, character, or individuality. It was depicted as a human headed bird. The Ba lived in the tomb, however, it was allowed to leave as it wishes. The Ka was a physical and emotional replica that was thought to live in the humans heart. The Ka was only able to live if the humans body was preserved properly. The Akh was the immorality of the deceased. It was the Akh's job to make the journey to the underworld.

Ba

All of these opponents take place in what the Egyptians thought to be the afterlife. The deceased person would be led to the hall of judgment by Anubis. There their heart would be weighed with a feather, representing Ma’at (the Egyptian concept of Right and Order). If the heart weighed less the person would be released to continue on in their afterlife. However, if the heart weighed more it would be eaten by Ammit, a monster that was part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus.Without the heart the person would be wiped out of existence.

As you can see it was important to the Egyptians to have their bodies properly preserved. To see that this was done they had their bodies mummified after death. There were many steps to this process. The first of the steps was to take out all of the organs, except the heart. They were mummified and put in canopic jars that were placed in the tomb at the time of burial. At this time the brain was also taken out. To the Egyptians the brain was useless and was taken out in pieces through the nose. Next, the body would be placed in natron, a salty drying agent, and left to dry out for forty to fifty days. When this time was up all of the bodies liquid would be gone, leaving only the skin, hair, and bones. The body would then be stuffed with resin, sawdust, or linen. This was done so the body would regain its old form. At last the body was wrapped in many layers of linen with numerous good luck charms, or amulets, wrapped between the layers. Between each layer of wrapping a priest would chant spells and prayers. This part of mummification could take up to fifteen days alone. The mummy was then put in his tomb or burial site.

It is incredible that they went through this process every time a person died, if they could afford it. It is so different in contrast to today's burial process. The Egyptians always have a fascinating way of doing things.

On the day of the burial the friends and family would gather at the home of the decedent and start the process of carrying the tomb. Slowly the funeral would make its way to the Nile. There one boat would take the mourners, while the other one would take the mummy, two mourners, and Semi-Priest. At the entrance of the tomb the opening of the mouth ceremony would take place. the mummy was raised to an upright position, the Semi-Priest would then speak the words of ritual while lesser-ranked priests would purify the coffin with water and incense. A adze was raised the the mummies mouth twice, then a forked instrument would be raised to tough the mummies mouth. Once the ceremony outside the tomb was completed the Lector Priests (usually three or four priests) would then recite an Offering Ritual at the false door of the tomb. During this ritual the coffin would be placed inside the tomb. Then the mourners would have a feast in honor of the deceased.

In a tomb erected during the Middle Kingdom, models of Nubian archers were found. They were believed to become life size in the journey to the afterlife. (Day 25)

Nubian Archers

The well known pharaoh, Tutankhamen, was one who went to great lengths to provide a prosperous afterlife. He built an amazing tomb and filled it with extraordinary things he thought would be useful in the afterlife. One of these included two statues that looked as if they were guarding Tutankhamen's tomb. In his tomb there was also much gold. Some of it included gold rings, jewelry, mask, and a coffin. Tutankhamen cared deeply for his afterlife. (MacQuitty)












This is very amazing to me. One man had the power, will, and belief to do such a thing. He spent the majority of his life so he could live well after death. The Egyptians never even questioned why; they just accepted this religion to be true and made great things because of it.



This is why I find the Egyptians belief in and preparation for the afterlife to be the most interesting topic. They believed in something that there's nothing else quite like it. Also they did such extreme lengths to ensure a prosperous afterlife, even if it meant major consequences for others.








MacQuitty, William. Tutankhamen: The Last Journey. Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, 1978.



Day, Nacy. Your Travel Guide to Ancient Egypt. Learner Publishing Group, Minnesota, 2001.